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PERSONALITY - permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality
- Persona - Theatrical
mask worn by Roman actors in Greek Dramas TRAITS - individual differences in behavior and stability across situations. CHARACTERISTICS - unique qualities (e.g.,temperament, physique, and intelligence. THEORY - set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning
PHILOSOPHY - broader than
theory
SPECULATION - must be tied to empirical data and science HYPOTHESIS - specific guess that can be tested using scientific method TAXONOMY- classification according to natural relationships
Humanistic- Existential -
assumes people strive for meaning, growth, happiness, and well-being;currently known as " positive psychology "
Dispositional Theorists -
unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways. unique dispositions such as extraversion or anxiety, are called traits.
Biological-Evolutionary -
Behavior, emotions, and personality vary due to genetic, epigenetic, and neurological differences in brain structure and chemistry. What Makes a Theory Useful: (Criteria for Evaluating Theory) ● Generates Research ● Is Falsifiable (Verifiable) ● Organizes Known Data ● Guides Action (Practical) ● Is Internally Consistent ● Is Parsimonous RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY THEORY ● Must Generate Research ● Systematic Observations Reliability - consistency of results Validity - the degree to which an instrument measures what is supposed to measure Construct Validity - extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct (e.g., extraversion, aggressiveness, intelligence, and emotional stability). Convergent - scores align well with other valid measures of the same concept. Divergent - Little to no link with unrelated measures Discriminant - it discriminates between two groups of people known to be different. Predictive Validity - if a test correctly predicts future behavior like if an extraversion test predicts that outgoing people will take more social risks or perform well in group activities SIGMUND FREUD - father of psychoanalytic theory Birthdate: May 6, 1856 Birthplace: Freiburg, Moravia
(Czechoslovakia)
Died: September 23, 1939
UNCONSCIOUS - hidden urges and instincts that influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings, often revealed through slips of the tongue, dreams, or forgetting things. PRECONSCIOUS - holds information we’re not currently aware of but can recall when needed, like remembering an address when asked CONSCIOUS - our awareness of thoughts and feelings in the present moment. Life instincts / Eros / Sex – urge to preserve life.
Libido – psychic and pleasurable feelings. a. Narcissism – Seen in infants who are self-focused, with their energy centered on themselves. b. Love – Occurs when a person directs their affection toward someone else. c. Sadism – Gaining pleasure from causing pain or humiliation to others. d. Masochism – Finding pleasure in experiencing pain or humiliation Death Instinct (Thanatos/Aggression) – The innate drive toward destruction, seen in aggression, violence, and conflict. ID - seeks immediate pleasure and avoids pain, driven by basic urges like sex and aggression.
- Present at birth, it has no sense of reality and relies on the ego to function in the real world. EGO - rational part of the mind that balances the Id and Superego, guided by reality. SUPEREGO – moral part of the mind, guiding right and wrong. It has two parts: Conscience (guilt for bad actions)”what we should not do” and Ego-ideal (pride for good actions) “what we should do”. Oral Phase (Birth - 18 months) ● Focus: Mouth (sucking, biting) ● Pleasure: Nourishment & oral activities ● Fixation: Nail-biting, smoking, overeating, sarcasm ● Oral Receptive (Overindulgence): Too much gratification → dependency, overeating ● Oral Aggressive (Underindulgence): Too little gratification → frustration, aggression Anal Phase (18 months - 3 years) ● Focus: Anus (control over elimination) ● Pleasure: Holding in & letting go ● Early Stage: Destructive tendencies, frustration with toilet training ● Late Stage: Interest in feces, pleasure in control ● Fixation Signs: Anal Retentive : Neat, stingy, perfectionist (holds things in) Anal Expulsive : Messy, careless, impulsive (lets things go) Phallic Phase (3-6 years) ● Focus: Genital area ● Oedipus Complex (Boys): Rivalry with father for mother’s love ● Castration Anxiety: Fear of losing the penis ● Electra Complex (Girls): Desire for a penis (Penis Envy) ● Fixation Signs: Phallic character (unresolved Oedipus/Electra Complex) ● Common Behavior: Masturbation Genital Stage (12+ years) ● Focus: Sexual interest in others ● Puberty: Identity development & mature relationships ● Shift: From self-pleasure to partner intimacy ● Fixation Signs: Frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships ● Freud's View: Non-heterosexual
past onto the therapist, helping to reveal hidden emotions.
- transference (where the patient projects emotions onto the therapist) and countertransference (where the therapist develops emotional reactions toward the patient). CATHARSIS is the emotional release of repressed trauma, while insight is recognizing its source. Freud's goal of therapy: "Make the unconscious conscious." CARL GUSTAV JUNG - fatheri of analytical psychology Jung saw his father as kind but weak and struggled to connect with him, especially on religion. His mother was loving but had a harsh, distant side. EGO - the center of consciousness, shaping identity through thoughts, memories, and emotions. PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS
- holds repressed and forgotten experiences, including childhood memories and hidden impulses. These form clusters called complexes.
COLLECTIVE
UNCONSCIOUS - is shared by all, inherited across generations, and holds universal human experiences. ARCHETYPES are universal patterns in the collective unconscious that shape how we experience the world. Ignoring them can lead to imbalance. PERSONA - social role that one assumes in society; social mask we wear, but it’s not our true self. SHADOW - our hidden, darker side—what we reject but still carry within us. It often appears in dreams as a dark or wild figure. ANIMA & ANIMUS - Anima is a man's feminine side, and animus is a woman's masculine side. Together, they form syzygy , the "divine couple," symbolizing wholeness and the true self. GREAT MOTHER - archetype represents both creation (nurturing, fertility) and destruction (power, fear). She is both loving and terrible, symbolizing duality in all humans. HERO archetype - is a powerful figure who battles evil but is ultimately defeated by an unexpected weakness. SELF - wholeness, guiding personal growth and uniting all other archetypes. It appears in dreams as a circle, mandala, or square. Psychological Types combine two attitudes ( introversion & extraversion ) with four functions ( thinking, feeling, sensing, & intuiting ) to shape personality. Jung’s Attitudes are: 🔹 Introversion – Focused inward on thoughts, dreams, and perceptions. 🔹 Extraversion – Focused outward on people, objects, and surroundings. “Everyone has both, but one is dominant.” Jung’s Functions (how we process info) : 🔹 Sensation vs. Intuition – Sensors rely on facts; Intuitors focus on patterns & possibilities. 🔹 Thinking vs. Feeling – Thinkers use logic; Feelers prioritize values & emotions. Jung’s Stages of Development
🔹 Childhood – Like sunrise,
growing consciousness ● Anarchic – Chaotic, scattered awareness ● Monarchic – Ego emerges, logical thinking begins
● Dualistic – Self-awareness, “I” instead of third person 🔹 Youth – Mid-morning, striving for independence ● Finding identity, love, and purpose ● Realizing childhood’s carefree days are over 🔹 Middle Life – Afternoon, transition & potential ● Around 35–40, facing anxieties but also growth 🔹 Old Age – Sunset, preparing for the unknown ● Life fulfillment depends on how one views death 🔹 Self-Realization – Becoming whole ● Individuation: integrating all parts of the psyche to achieve balance Jung’s Methods of Investigation 🔹 Word Association Test – Say the first word that comes to mind. ● Jung used 100 emotional trigger words to measure response time & physiological reactions. 🔹 Dream Analysis – The “royal road” to the unconscious ● Unlike Freud, Jung saw dreams as more than hidden wishes—they reveal deeper meanings. 🔹 Active Imagination – Focus on an image, dream, or vision, let it evolve, and engage with it to uncover hidden truths. Alfred Adler (Feb 7, 1870 – May 28, 1937) Born in Rudolfsheim, near Vienna. ● Sickly childhood, often compared to his healthier brother. ● Rejected Freud’s sexual theory, emphasizing superiority drive. ● Left the Psychoanalytic Society and founded the Society for Individual Psychology. ● Advocated gender equality and had an optimistic view of humanity. ● Died of a heart attack on May 28, 1937.
Individual Psychology
● Optimistic view of people. ● Social interest: A sense of oneness with humanity. ● Driven by social influences & striving for superiority/success. ● We shape our own identity & are responsible for who we become. ● Future goals influence present behavior. ● Self-awareness is key to psychological health Striving for Superiority - driving force behind all behavior is the pursuit of success or superiority. Finalism - Inferiority fuels the drive for superiority or success—unhealthy people seek personal gain, while healthy individuals aim for humanity’s progress. Final Goal - A fictional yet powerful force shaping personality. Neglected or pampered children form unconscious, self-serving goals, while loved and secure children strive for success with social interest. Subjective Perceptions - Behavior is shaped not by reality but by personal fictions and future expectations.
Teleology is an
explanation of behavior in terms of its final purpose or aim. Organ Dialect - The body "speaks" through a deficient organ, revealing a person's true feelings and goals more clearly than words. Example: Physical disability expressing struggle.
Melanie Klein - Born (1882, Vienna, Austria) – Youngest of four, felt unwanted. ● Tragic Losses – Sister (Sidonie) died when she was 4; later lost father & beloved brother (Emmanuel). ● Unfulfilled Dream – Wanted to be a doctor but married Arthur Klein at 21, regretted it. ● Psychoanalysis Path – Introduced by Sandor Ferenczi in Budapest. ● Revolutionized Child Analysis – First to analyze children directly, proving they develop a superego earlier than Freud thought. ● Controversy in London – Extended Freudian theory, but Freud & Anna Freud disagreed with her focus on early childhood Object Relations Theory (ORT) ● Focuses more on relationships than biological drives. ● Emphasizes mother’s role over father’s power. ● Human behavior is driven by connection, not just sexual pleasure. Klein = Mother of ORT, Freud = Father of Psychoanalysis Psychic Life of an Infant ● First 4-6 Months Matter – Babies aren’t blank slates; they’re born with instincts to manage anxiety from life (good) & death (bad) drives. Phantasies & Objects – Infants have unconscious images of “good” (e.g., full stomach) and “bad” (e.g., hunger). Objects & Drives – Humans have innate drives that need objects (e.g., hunger → breast, sex → sexual organ). Internal & External Objects – Infants internalize their caregivers, shaping their later relationships. Stages (Positions) of Infant Development Paranoid-Schizoid Position (0-4 months) – Baby sees the world as “good” vs. “bad” (splitting). Feels persecuted when frustrated. Depressive Position (5- months onward) – Recognizes mom as both good & bad. Develops guilt and anxiety over potential loss. Psychic Defense Mechanisms ● Introjection – Taking in (internalizing) external objects, especially the mother’s breast, to reduce anxiety. Early relationships = blueprint for all future relationships. Projection – Putting your own feelings onto others. E.g., seeing your own good/bad traits in parents. Splitting – Keeping "good me" and "bad me" apart to manage incompatible impulses. Projective Identification – Splitting off bad traits, projecting them into others, and then introjecting them back. Influences adult relationships. Internalizations – Taking in aspects of the external world, organizing them mentally (ego, superego, Oedipus complex). Ego – Develops early, can feel anxiety, uses defense mechanisms. Forms object relations from birth. Superego – Forms early, more harsh/terrifying than Freud’s version. Instills fear of destruction.
Oedipus Complex – Starts early, peaks around 3-4 years old. Fear of retaliation from parents. Female Oedipus Complex ● Sees mother's breast as both good and bad. Shifts to seeing father as a provider, develops positive feelings for both parents. Male Oedipus Complex ● Shifts oral desires to father’s penis, experiences castration anxiety, and resolves Oedipus complex partially Margaret Mahler Normal Autism (0-4 weeks) ● Infant is unaware of others, focused on primary needs (e.g., hunger). Normal Symbiosis (2- months) ● Infant and mother seen as one unit, dim awareness of separateness, starting to differentiate good (pleasure) from bad (frustration). Separation-Individuation ( months – 3 years) ● Infant begins to separate psychologically from mother and develops individual identity. Differentiation (5-10 months) : Bodily separation from mother. Practicing (10-16 months) : Distinguishing body from mother, starts forming autonomous ego. Rapprochement (16- months) : Desires to reunite with mother both physically and emotionally. Libidinal Object Constancy ( years) : Internal representation of mother formed for psychological separation. Heinz Kohut Self : The “center of the individual’s psychological universe,” providing unity and consistency to experiences. Selfobjects : Caregivers (parents) are crucial for psychological development, treating infants as if they have a sense of self. Narcissism : Infants are naturally narcissistic and need caregivers to fulfill their psychological needs. Narcissistic Needs : ● Grandiose Self : Desire for admiration and affirmation. ● Idealized Parental Image : Need to form a positive, idealized view of parents. John Bowlby – Attachment Theory Stages of Separation Anxiety :
- Protest : Infant cries and searches for caregiver.
- Despair : Becomes quiet, sad, and passive.
- Detachment : Emotionally detached from caregiver. Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation : ● Secure Attachment : Child explores, happy when mother returns. ● Insecure-Avoidant : Avoids mother, indifferent to her leaving or returning. ● Insecure-Ambivalent : Anxious about exploration, ambivalent when mother returns.
