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The Evolution of News and Communication: From Oral Traditions to the Printing Press, Study notes of Ethnic Studies

A comprehensive overview of the historical evolution of news and communication, tracing its development from ancient oral traditions to the invention of the printing press. It explores the fundamental nature of news, the human need for information, and the impact of technological advancements on news dissemination. The document highlights key figures and events, including the role of griots in african cultures, the acta diurna in ancient rome, and the tipao in china. It also examines the significance of the printing press in democratizing knowledge and its role in the protestant reformation.

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Summary of Revolutions in Communications Chapter 1
Part 1: The Printing Revolution (1400s-1814)
Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the moveable-type printing press in 1454 was
a turning point in history, marking the beginning of the printing revolution. The
press made it possible to produce books much more cheaply and efficiently than by
hand-copying, leading to a rapid increase in the availability of books.
While Gutenberg is credited with the invention, the printing revolution was the
result of a confluence of factors, including the availability of paper, ink, presses,
and a growing demand for books.
Printing spread rapidly throughout Europe, with Venice becoming a major center
of the industry in the 15th century. The printing revolution had a profound impact on
the Renaissance, helping to spread humanist ideas, standardize languages, and
increase the availability of knowledge.
Printing played a key role in the Protestant Reformation, allowing reformers like
Martin Luther to spread their ideas to a wide audience. The Church responded with
the Counter-Reformation, leading to centuries of religious warfare.
While printing initially contributed to religious intolerance, it also helped to spread
ideas of religious tolerance and reason. Enlightenment thinkers like John Milton and
Voltaire championed freedom of speech and the press.
The printing revolution also had a profound impact on science and technology,
allowing for the accurate and widespread dissemination of scientific knowledge.
The development of newspapers in the 17th century marked a new era in mass
communication. Newspapers became important sources of news and information, and
played a role in political revolutions.
Governments and religious authorities attempted to control the press through
censorship, but the demand for news and information was too strong.
Newspapers played a key role in political revolutions, including the English Civil
War, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution.
The partisan press of the 18th and early 19th centuries was characterized by
strong political biases. Newspapers were often financed and controlled by political
parties.
Part 2: The Commercial and Industrial Media Revolution (1814-1900)
The invention of the steam-powered printing press in 1814 revolutionized the
newspaper industry. The steam press could print thousands of newspapers per hour,
making it possible to produce newspapers for a mass audience.
The source does not provide summaries of the remaining sections of the chapter.
An Examination of Milton's Areopagitica
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Summary of Revolutions in Communications Chapter 1 Part 1: The Printing Revolution (1400s-1814)Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the moveable-type printing press in 1454 was a turning point in history, marking the beginning of the printing revolution. The press made it possible to produce books much more cheaply and efficiently than by hand-copying, leading to a rapid increase in the availability of books. ● While Gutenberg is credited with the invention, the printing revolution was the result of a confluence of factors, including the availability of paper, ink, presses, and a growing demand for books.Printing spread rapidly throughout Europe, with Venice becoming a major center of the industry in the 15th century. The printing revolution had a profound impact on the Renaissance, helping to spread humanist ideas, standardize languages, and increase the availability of knowledge. ● Printing played a key role in the Protestant Reformation, allowing reformers like Martin Luther to spread their ideas to a wide audience. The Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, leading to centuries of religious warfare. ● While printing initially contributed to religious intolerance, it also helped to spread ideas of religious tolerance and reason. Enlightenment thinkers like John Milton and Voltaire championed freedom of speech and the press. ● The printing revolution also had a profound impact on science and technology, allowing for the accurate and widespread dissemination of scientific knowledge.The development of newspapers in the 17th century marked a new era in mass communication. Newspapers became important sources of news and information, and played a role in political revolutions. ● Governments and religious authorities attempted to control the press through censorship, but the demand for news and information was too strong.Newspapers played a key role in political revolutions, including the English Civil War, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution.The partisan press of the 18th and early 19th centuries was characterized by strong political biases. Newspapers were often financed and controlled by political parties. Part 2: The Commercial and Industrial Media Revolution (1814-1900)The invention of the steam-powered printing press in 1814 revolutionized the newspaper industry. The steam press could print thousands of newspapers per hour, making it possible to produce newspapers for a mass audience. The source does not provide summaries of the remaining sections of the chapter. An Examination of Milton's Areopagitica

● Milton's Areopagitica is a passionate defense of freedom of the press that draws upon classical and biblical allusions to argue against pre-publication censorship. ● Milton cleverly uses these allusions to flatter the members of Parliament by comparing them to the enlightened leaders of ancient Athens and Rome. ● He suggests that only ignorant people would criticize Athenian policies, and since Athens did not have book licensing, England should also abolish censorship. ● Milton argues that allowing a diversity of viewpoints, even false ones, is essential for the pursuit of truth. ● He contends that truth will always prevail in a free and open encounter with falsehood. ● Milton's Areopagitica was a direct response to the Licensing Order of 1643, which reinstated pre-publication censorship in England. ● While Milton advocates against censorship, he acknowledges that there should be legal consequences for publishing treasonous, slanderous, or blasphemous material. ● To further persuade Parliament, Milton draws a stark contrast between the enlightened societies of Greece and Rome and the tyrannical societies of Catholic Spain and the Inquisition. ● He presents Parliament with a choice: abolish censorship or be seen as imitating the policies of the Catholic Church. ● This was a shrewd tactic, as Parliament during Milton's time was fiercely anti-Catholic, and any association with Catholic policies would have been highly undesirable. ● Although Areopagitica failed to achieve its immediate goal of influencing Parliament, its impact was felt in later centuries. ● It is considered the first major treatise on press freedom and influenced many advocates for the abolition of censorship. ● Even the United States Bill of Rights can be seen as a descendant of Milton's ideas. It's worth noting that the sources offer some possible explanations for why Areopagitica was initially ignored. One possibility is that Milton's other radical opinions and writings had already made him a controversial figure. He challenged societal norms and was even accused of heresy. This suggests that Areopagitica might have been seen as too radical for its time. Here is a summary of each slide, combining information from the provided sources and our conversation history to provide a more complete understanding of the historical context and significance: ● Slide 1: Title Slide The sources do not provide information for a title slide. However, given the content of the other slides, it's reasonable to assume the presentation focuses on the history of news and communication, possibly with an emphasis on the impact of technological advancements. ● Slide 2: What is News? This slide likely introduces the concept of news and its significance in society. The

later technological advancements that would further accelerate news dissemination, like the telegraph and the internet. ● Slide 7: Thucydides and the Importance of Verification This slide likely introduces the concept of journalistic verification and objectivity, using Thucydides, a Greek historian, as an early example. Thucydides, known for his account of the Peloponnesian War, stressed the importance of firsthand observation and corroborated accounts from eyewitnesses. His rigorous approach to gathering and verifying information, recognizing the potential for bias and error, laid the groundwork for the principles of journalistic ethics that would develop centuries later. ● Slide 8: News in Ancient Rome This slide likely discusses the development of early forms of news distribution in Ancient Rome. Julius Caesar's institution of the Acta Diurna in 59 BC, which publicized the daily proceedings of the Senate and public notices, represents a significant step towards a more formalized news system. The Acta Diurna , displayed publicly, were then copied and sold by scribes, demonstrating an early market for written news and the desire for information among Roman citizens. ● Slide 9: The Tipao of Ancient China This slide likely examines the Tipao , an early form of news dissemination in China, demonstrating that organized news systems were not unique to Western cultures. The Tipao , handwritten reports circulating during the Han and Tang Dynasties, were primarily intended for government officials. This difference from the public nature of Rome's Acta Diurna suggests a greater emphasis on controlling information within the Chinese imperial system. ● Slide 10: Griots and Messengers This slide likely expands upon the earlier discussion of specialized storytellers, highlighting the roles of griots and messengers in pre-literate societies. Griots, found in West African cultures, held vital positions as keepers of history, genealogists, advisors, and news disseminators. Their ability to memorize and recite vast amounts of information, often set to music and song, made them crucial sources of news and knowledge within their communities. ● Slide 11: The Medieval Miracle: The Printing Press This slide likely introduces the printing press as a groundbreaking invention that revolutionized communication. The sources describe it as the "Medieval Miracle," comparing its impact to the transformative technologies of the modern era. This

characterization emphasizes its significance as a watershed moment in human history. The printing press's ability to rapidly reproduce text made information more widely accessible, breaking down the barriers of manuscript culture and paving the way for new forms of knowledge sharing and social change. ● Slide 12: Pre-Literate Societies and the Importance of Memory This slide likely contrasts the challenges of preserving knowledge in pre-literate societies with the capabilities ushered in by the printing press. In societies without widespread literacy, memory was paramount for transmitting knowledge, history, and traditions. This reliance on oral transmission, as the sources point out, meant that information was passed down through generations through songs, stories, and rituals, requiring significant effort to memorize and retain. ● Slide 13: The Shift from Oral to Written Culture This slide likely expands upon the previous slide by examining the profound societal shifts that occurred with the transition from oral to written culture. The printing press, by making books and written material more readily available, facilitated this transition. As the sources note, written culture allows for the externalization of knowledge, moving it from the realm of memory to physical records. This shift had profound implications for how knowledge was created, shared, and controlled. ● Slide 14: The End of Manuscript Culture This slide likely emphasizes the printing press's role in displacing manuscript culture, leading to a democratization of knowledge. The ability to mass-produce books significantly lowered the cost of producing and distributing information, making it accessible to a wider audience. This shift had profound implications for education, literacy, and the spread of new ideas. ● Slide 15: Early Printing in Asia and the Challenges of Ideographic Writing Systems This slide likely aims to dispel the misconception that printing originated in Europe, highlighting the earlier innovations in Asia. The sources mention the use of woodblock printing in China, Japan, and Korea centuries before Gutenberg. They also point out that Bi Sheng in China invented movable type in the 11th century, predating Gutenberg. However, the complexity of Asian writing systems, with their vast number of characters, presented challenges for early typesetting methods that were more easily overcome with alphabetic systems. ● Slide 16: Gutenberg and the Move to Metal Type This slide likely delves into Johannes Gutenberg's contributions to printing in Europe.

  1. What is News?: The presentation might begin by exploring the fundamental nature of news, perhaps using G. Stuart Adam's definition of news as "an account of a shift in the state of things in the material world, or the world beyond our senses".
  2. The Awareness Instinct: Building upon the definition of news, the presentation might then examine the innate human desire for news, described in the sources as "The Awareness Instinct." This instinct is rooted in the need to understand potential threats and rewards in the surrounding environment, a need that likely had evolutionary benefits for early humans.
  3. Storytelling and the Origins of News: Before the advent of writing, news was spread through oral storytelling traditions. The presentation might explore the role of storytellers as the original news disseminators, emphasizing the importance of oral communication in preserving history, transmitting knowledge, and entertaining.
  4. Early Advancements in News Dissemination: As societies advanced, so did the methods of spreading news. The presentation might dedicate a slide to early innovations like the domestication of the horse in China around 3500 BC, the invention of the wheel, and the use of runners and messengers in various cultures.
  5. Griots and Other Messengers: Expanding on the roles of messengers, the presentation could highlight specialized roles like griots in African cultures, who served as keepers of history and oral historians, responsible for transmitting news and preserving cultural memory.
  6. Early Written News Systems: The presentation might transition to discussing early written news systems, such as the Acta Diurna in ancient Rome, established under Julius Caesar. These daily handwritten newssheets, displayed in public places, represent an early attempt to formally inform citizens about government proceedings and other noteworthy events.
  7. The Tipao of Ancient China: Shifting geographical focus, the presentation might then explore the Tipao, a system of handwritten news reports used in the Chinese empires of the Han and T’ang dynasties. Unlike the Acta Diurna, the Tipao primarily targeted government officials, demonstrating how written news could be used for both public information and controlling information flow.
  1. Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press: The presentation likely emphasizes the invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg around 1454 as a monumental turning point in the history of communication.
  2. The Printing Press as a "Medieval Miracle": The presentation might refer to the printing press as the "Google-iPad-Amazon-Facebook-iPhone of its day," highlighting its revolutionary impact on information access. By making the mass production of text possible, the printing press shattered the control over knowledge previously held by religious institutions and elites, democratizing access to information like never before.
  3. From Manuscript Culture to Printing Culture: The presentation might contrast the laborious and expensive nature of manuscript culture, where books were copied by hand, with the efficiency and relative affordability of printing. This shift from manuscript to printing culture marked a profound change in how knowledge was produced, disseminated, and valued.
  4. Printing and the Protestant Reformation: The presentation likely dedicates several slides to the impact of the printing press on the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther’s 95 Theses, challenging the Catholic Church, were rapidly reproduced and disseminated thanks to the printing press, fueling the Reformation and demonstrating the power of print in challenging authority.
  5. The Counter-Reformation and Censorship: The Catholic Church recognized the threat posed by the printing press and launched the Counter-Reformation, attempting to regain control over religious interpretation and suppress dissenting voices. The presentation might explore this tension between the Church's desire for control and the growing demand for religious freedom fueled by access to printed materials.
  6. The Expansion of Printing and the Rise of Newspapers: The presentation likely traces the rapid spread of printing throughout Europe and its role in the rise of newspapers. The demand for news, coupled with advancements in printing technology, led to the emergence of different types of news publications, including relations, corontos, diurnals, and mercuries, laying the foundation for modern newspapers.
  1. The Human Need for News: Building upon the definition of news, the presentation might then examine the innate human desire to be informed, referred to in the sources as "The Awareness Instinct". This instinct likely stems from an evolutionary need to be aware of potential threats and opportunities in the surrounding environment.
  2. From Oral Traditions to Early Messengers: Before the development of written language, news was primarily spread through oral storytelling traditions. The presentation could highlight the role of skilled orators and storytellers as the original news disseminators. As societies advanced, new methods of transmitting news emerged. The sources point to the domestication of the horse, the invention of the wheel, and the use of runners and messengers as early examples of technological advancements that sped up communication.
  3. Griots and the Importance of Oral History: Expanding on the roles of messengers, the presentation might focus on specialized figures like griots in African cultures. Griots served as keepers of history, oral historians, and news disseminators, responsible for transmitting knowledge, preserving cultural memory, and informing their communities.
  4. Early Written News in Rome and China: The presentation likely transitions to examining the emergence of formalized, written news systems in ancient civilizations. In ancient Rome, Julius Caesar established the Acta Diurna, daily handwritten newssheets displayed in public places to inform citizens about government proceedings and other notable events. Similarly, the Chinese empires of the Han and T’ang dynasties used a system of handwritten news reports called the Tipao, primarily circulated among government officials, demonstrating how written news could be used for both public information and controlling information flow.
  5. Johannes Gutenberg and the Dawn of Mass Communication: The invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg around 1454 marked a seismic shift in the history of communication, and the presentation likely dedicates several slides to this pivotal development. The sources emphasize how this "Medieval Miracle" democratized knowledge by enabling the mass production of text.
  6. From Manuscript to Printing Culture: The shift from a manuscript-based culture, where books were painstakingly copied by hand, to a printing-based culture, where texts could be reproduced quickly and in larger quantities, had a profound impact on society. The sources highlight how printing made books and written materials more affordable and accessible, leading to increased literacy rates and the spread of new ideas.
  1. Printing, the Reformation, and the Challenge to Authority: The presentation likely examines the crucial role of the printing press in the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther's 95 Theses, which challenged the Catholic Church, were quickly reproduced and widely circulated thanks to the printing press, fueling the Reformation and highlighting the power of print to challenge established authority and disseminate dissenting views.
  2. The Counter-Reformation and Attempts at Censorship: The presentation might then explore the Catholic Church's response to the printing press and the Reformation. The Church, recognizing the threat posed by the spread of Protestant ideas, launched the Counter-Reformation. This movement sought to regain control over religious interpretation and included attempts to censor printed materials and suppress dissenting voices. This period highlights the enduring tension between the desire to control information and the push for greater freedom of expression.
  3. The Rise of Newspapers and the Demand for News: The presentation likely traces how the printing press facilitated the rise of newspapers, driven by a growing public appetite for news. Early news publications took various forms, including relations (single-event accounts), corontos (foreign news), diurnals (government affairs), and mercuries (six-month compilations of news). These publications laid the groundwork for modern newspapers.
  4. The Penny Press Revolution and the Mass Audience: In the 19th century, the Penny Press Revolution, made possible by technological advancements like the steam-powered printing press, transformed news into a commodity accessible to a mass audience. Newspapers became more affordable, leading to a surge in readership. The presentation could highlight key publications of this era, such as The Sun, The Herald, The Tribune, and The New York Times, which emerged as influential forces in shaping public opinion.
  5. Crusading Journalism and the Progressive Era: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, a period known as the Progressive Era, witnessed the rise of crusading journalism, also referred to as "muckraking." Journalists and publishers like Joseph Pulitzer and E.W. Scripps used their platforms to expose corruption, advocate for social reform, and hold those in power accountable. This form of journalism reflects a growing awareness of the media's potential to effect positive change.