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The Evolution of Abnormal Psychology: From Supernatural to Integrative Approaches, Exams of Abnormal Psychology

A comprehensive overview of the historical development of abnormal psychology, tracing its evolution from supernatural explanations to modern integrative approaches. It explores various perspectives, including the supernatural tradition, the biological perspective, and the psychological tradition, highlighting key figures, theories, and treatments. The document also delves into the concept of abnormality, its assessment, and the scientist-practitioner model. It concludes with a discussion of the importance of understanding the historical context of abnormal psychology to better understand current approaches to mental health.

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2023/2024

Uploaded on 10/24/2024

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The Evolution of Abnormal
Psychology: From Supernatural to
Integrative Approaches
Understanding Psychopathology
Defining Abnormality
There is no single criterion that fully defines abnormality. Abnormality
can be characterized by various factors, including:
Personal distress
Impaired functioning
Culturally expected responses
Psychotic symptoms
Behaviors that deviate from the norm are not always considered a
disorder, especially if they do not impair function or violate social
norms.
A psychological dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognitive,
emotional, or behavioral functioning, or a combination of these.
Assessing Abnormality
Behaviors are typically seen as a disorder when they impair function,
rather than simply deviating from the norm.
Personal distress is an important criterion in defining abnormality, as it
indicates the individual is experiencing significant difficulties.
Cultural factors play a role in determining what behaviors are
considered abnormal, as societal norms vary across cultures.
The Scientist-Practitioner Model
Mental health practitioners, such as psychiatrists and psychologists,
function as both scientists and practitioners.
As scientists, they conduct research, evaluate their own assessments
and treatments, and use the most current diagnostic and treatment
procedures.
As practitioners, they apply their scientific knowledge to help people
with psychological problems.
Epidemiology
Prevalence refers to the number of people in a population who have a
particular disorder at a given time.
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The Evolution of Abnormal

Psychology: From Supernatural to

Integrative Approaches

Understanding Psychopathology

Defining Abnormality

There is no single criterion that fully defines abnormality. Abnormality can be characterized by various factors, including: Personal distress Impaired functioning Culturally expected responses

Psychotic symptoms

Behaviors that deviate from the norm are not always considered a disorder, especially if they do not impair function or violate social norms.

A psychological dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning, or a combination of these.

Assessing Abnormality

Behaviors are typically seen as a disorder when they impair function, rather than simply deviating from the norm. Personal distress is an important criterion in defining abnormality, as it indicates the individual is experiencing significant difficulties. Cultural factors play a role in determining what behaviors are considered abnormal, as societal norms vary across cultures.

The Scientist-Practitioner Model

Mental health practitioners, such as psychiatrists and psychologists, function as both scientists and practitioners. As scientists, they conduct research, evaluate their own assessments and treatments, and use the most current diagnostic and treatment procedures. As practitioners, they apply their scientific knowledge to help people with psychological problems.

Epidemiology

Prevalence refers to the number of people in a population who have a particular disorder at a given time.

Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disorder that occur during a specific period. Statistical data on prevalence and incidence are important in understanding the scope and impact of psychological disorders.

Course and Prognosis

The course of a disorder can be described as episodic, time-limited, guarded, or insidious. Prognosis refers to the expected course and outcome of a disorder, which can help individuals and their families understand how the disorder may progress.

Developmental Psychopathology

Developmental psychopathology is the study of changes in abnormal behavior over the lifespan, including both normal and abnormal development.

Etiology

Etiology refers to the origins and causes of psychological disorders, including biological, psychological, and social factors. Historically, attempts to explain problematic behavior have focused on supernatural causes, such as demons, evil spirits, and the movement of celestial bodies.

The Biological Perspective

The ancient Greek concept of the mind being separate from the body laid the foundation for the biological and psychological models of abnormality. During the Middle Ages, mental illness was often attributed to demonic possession and treated with religious rituals, such as exorcism. In the 14th century, some physicians recognized the importance of natural factors, such as clean air and rest, in treating mental illness.

The Supernatural Tradition

Divine Punishment

During the Middle Ages, certain behaviors and mental states were often attributed to divine punishment or demonic possession. This included phenomena such as:

Tarantism: Groups of people suddenly exhibiting bizarre behavior like running, dancing, shouting, and jumping around. Lycanthropy: Belief that a person could transform into an animal, often a wolf.

Biological Treatments

Various biological treatments for mental disorders have been used over time, including:

Bloodletting Induced seizures Electroconvulsive therapy Psychopharmacology (e.g. neuroleptics, benzodiazepines)

The discovery of the therapeutic effects of electroconvulsive therapy, for example, was an important development in the biological approach to mental illness.

The Asylum Movement

The emphasis on biological causes of mental illness in the late 19th century ironically led to reduced interest in treatments, as mental disorders were seen as incurable brain pathologies. This contrasted with the earlier "moral therapy" approach that advocated for more humane, psychosocial interventions in asylums.

The Psychological Tradition

In contrast to the biological perspective, the psychological tradition focused on the role of psychological factors, social/environmental influences, and unknown causes in the development of mental disorders. This approach advocated for treatments like psychotherapy, rather than solely biological interventions.

Classification of Mental Disorders

The idea of classifying mental disorders based on their symptoms, onset, time course, and cause is attributed to the work of Emil Kraepelin in the late 19th century. This laid the foundation for modern psychiatric nosology and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

The Psychological Tradition

Emil Kraepelin

Emil Kraepelin was a German psychiatrist who is considered the founder of modern scientific psychiatry. He made significant contributions to the classification and understanding of mental disorders.

John Grey

John Grey was a British psychologist who made important contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of personality and individual differences.

Dorothea Dix

Dorothea Dix was an American social reformer who played a crucial role in the moral treatment movement for the mentally ill. She campaigned tirelessly for the humane treatment of the insane and was instrumental in establishing more humane conditions in mental institutions.

Moral Treatment for Mental Patients

Moral treatment for mental patients involved treating institutionalized patients as normally as possible, rather than judging their behavior based on moral values or using negative consequences to shape their behavior. This approach, introduced by Philippe Pinel in France, aimed to create a socially facilitative environment for the mentally ill.

After Pinel's introduction of moral therapy, a similar type of socially facilitative environment was first established in a U.S. hospital by Benjamin Rush.

Decline of Moral Therapy

Moral therapy as a treatment for the mentally ill declined after the mid-1800s due to an increase in the mental hospital population, which was caused by an influx of immigrants. This led to insufficient staff to provide the personalized care required for moral therapy.

Dorothea Dix and the Mental Hygiene Movement

Dorothea Dix was a prominent crusader for the mental hygiene movement, which advocated for more humane treatment of the insane. Her efforts led to an increase in the number of mental patients in institutions, resulting in insufficient staff to care for them, an unintended consequence of her work.

Anton Mesmer and Animal Magnetism

Anton Mesmer, an 18th-century physician, claimed to cure patients by unblocking their flow of a bodily fluid he called "animal magnetism." However, any effectiveness of his methods was actually due to the power of suggestion, as demonstrated by a "double blind" experiment conducted by Benjamin Franklin.

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, made significant contributions to the field of psychology, including the concepts of the unconscious mind, the Electra complex, and the use of hypnosis and catharsis in treating patients with psychological disorders.

Commitment Level : Psychodynamic psychotherapy requires a long- term commitment on the part of the person being analyzed, unlike classical psychoanalysis.

Focus on Social and Interpersonal Issues : Psychodynamic psychotherapy focuses on social and interpersonal issues, while classical psychoanalysis does not.

Importance of Past Experiences : Psychodynamic psychotherapy considers past experiences to be important, which is a key aspect of the approach.

Criticisms of Freud's Theory

The following are all criticisms of Freud's theory, except:

Unconscious mental processes cannot be scientifically observed.

Humanistic Theories of Carl Rogers

The following are associated with the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers:

Unconditional positive regard Empathy Person-centered therapy

The following is not associated with the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers:

Hierarchy of needs

Positive Influence in Facilitating Human Growth

According to the psychological tradition, the single most positive influence in facilitating human growth is relationships, including the therapeutic relationship.

Psychotherapy Approaches

The following are the major psychotherapy approaches:

Psychoanalytic Humanistic Behavioral

Person-Centered Therapy

A therapist using person-centered therapy is likely to take a passive role in any interactions with the client.

Behavioral Model

The systematic development of a scientific approach to psychopathology is represented by the behavioral model.

Classical Conditioning

According to classical conditioning, learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus until it elicits the same response as that stimulus.

Conditioned Response

Mustafa's fear of dogs is an example of a conditioned response, as he was bitten by a dog when he was five years old.

Stimulus Generalization

Mustafa was bitten by a deranged Chihuahua when he was five years old. This is an example of stimulus generalization, as his fear of dogs has generalized to other types of dogs.

Extinction of Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus over a long period of time would eventually lead to the extinction of the conditioned response.

The Behavioral Model and Psychopathology

Shaping of the Conditioned Response

The behavioral model is based on the idea that behavior can be studied using scientific techniques. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian researcher, studied the conditioning of responses by pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a natural response. Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response.

Psychologists like John B. Watson applied these principles of classical conditioning to condition behavioral responses in people. Joseph Wolpe used the principles of classical conditioning to treat phobias using systematic desensitization, where the fear of an object is extinguished by exposing the person to the object or setting without any negative consequences.

Forgetting of the Response

B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, which argues that behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or consequences of the action. Skinner contended that manipulating reinforcements can shape or create particular behaviors, and these principles can be used therapeutically.