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Test 1 Chapter 2 Basic Outline ATOM -Made up of 3 main parts:
- Protons -positive charge -in the nucleus -most of the atom’s weight
- Neutrons -no charge -in the nucleus
- Electrons -negative charge -move around nucleus ELEMENTS (any substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler substance by chemical means) -defined by # of protons -ex: Element: Helium: 2 protons -can exist in more than one form, called isotopes (isotopes are dependent on # of neutrons, which can change) CHEMICAL BONDS ~Covalent Bonds -atoms share 1 or more electrons -can be polar/nonpolar -polar covalent bonds: -exist when shared electrons are not being shared equally among atoms in a molecule ~Ionic Bonds -atoms lose/accept electrons from each other Atoms always seek to be in their lowest energy state -Lowest energy state: filled outer electron shell ~Hydrogen Bonds -link already covalently bonded hydrogen atom with an electronegative (see below) atom. Ex: In water, a hydrogen atom of 1 water molecule will form a hydrogen bond with an unshared oxygen electron of a nearby water molecule MOLECULES -a specific number of atoms combined in a relationship form a molecule
-ex: 2 Hydrogens + 1 Oxygen= 1 Water molecule ELECTRONEGATIVITY -The power to attract electrons -causes atoms to take on polarity: -polarity: a difference in electrical charge at one end compared to the other. QUALITIES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS ~Shape -3D shape -shape determines the capacity molecules have to bind with each other ~Solution -a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more types of molecules, atoms, or ions. -ex: Salt Water ~Solute -the compound dissolved in the solution -ex: Salt ~Solvent -the compound dissolving the solute -Water is the universal solvent ex: Water WATER -has capacity to absorb/retain heat (oceans act as heat buffers and stabilize temp.) -high degree of cohesion (water can evaporate and move through roots of plants) HYDROPHOBIC vs. HYDROPHILIC -Hydrophobic: water fearing -hydrocarbons like petroleum -water cannot break down hydrophobic compounds, meaning they do not mix with water (ex: oil & water do not mix) -Hydrophilic: water loving -interact with water -polar compounds -compounds with an electric charge Chapter 3 Basic Outline CARBON -central element to life -Why? -Most biological molecules are built on a carbon framework
-carbon chain in straight line Oils -liquid at room temp -enriched in plant sources -unsaturated PROTEINS -composed of amino acids -Groups:
- Enzymes: hasten chemical rxns
- Structural Proteins: make up structures (ex: hair) -Structures:
- Primary: amino acid sequence
- Secondary: folded up sequence
- Tertiary: 3D, larger shape
- Quaternary: 2 or more polypeptide chains combine -Lipoproteins High Density (HDLs): Good cholesterol Low Density (LDLs): Bad cholesterol STUDY QUESTIONS
- The 3 fundamental parts of the atom are? What are their charges? A: Proton positive, Neutron no charge, Electron negative
- An ______ is any form of matter that can’t be reduced to a simpler thing by chemical means. A: element
- Polar or Non polar? C- C P-O O-O S-S N-H A: Non polar, polar, non polar, non polar, polar
- Glucose is a? A: Monosaccharide
- Sucrose and Lactose are? A: Disaccharides
- Cellulose and glycogen are? A: Polysaccharides
- Explain the roles of solutes and solvents in solutions.
A: Solutes dissolve into solvents.
- Oil seals in water on skin because oils? A: Are hydrophobic
- Starch is a _____, Maltose is a ______, and glucose is a _________. A: polysaccharide, disaccharide, monosaccharide
- A molecule that does not have a net electrical charge at one end as opposed to the other is? A: non polar
- Oxygen and hydrogen differ in negativity. Meaning? A: they unequally share electrons
- The tendency of water to resist changes in temp. is the result of the water’s? A: high specific heat
- Someone is lactose intolerant. The –ose ending indicates that he/she cannot digest a certain? A: sugar
- What effects does hydrogen bonding have on the properties of water? A: Hydrogen bonds explain why water is so cohesive, has high specific heat, and has strong surface tension
15) Match each of the following lipids with the molecules they are composed of:
steroid
triglyceride
phospholipid
glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group
glycerol and three fatty acids
four fused rings of carbon
16) Match each of the following lipids with their function:
Cholesterol Testosterone Triglyceride Phospholipid
-These lipids are found in the outer membane of many cells, and also acts as a
precursor for many steroid hormones in humans
-These lipids are responsible for stimulating male secondary sex characteristics
TEST THREE
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CLIMATE CHANGE, DNA
CLASS NOTES
February 11-14th: Cellular Respiration o ATP: form of energy that humans can use o Poisons typically work in stopping one of the 4 steps in cellular repiration which include: Glycolysis, Acetyl COA, Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain o The Electron transport chain yields the most ATP o All prior steps are used in making electrons available for the electron transport chain. NAD AND FAD+ are electron carriers o By the time of the process of the Electron Transport Chain there is no more carbon, just electrons Substrates (^) Products C- Containing
AT
P
NADH
FADH
Glycolysis glucose 3 carbon Pyruvate
ATP
NADH
Acetyl CoA Pyruvate (^) Acetyl CoA and CO
ATP
NADH
Krebs Cycle Acetyl CoA (^) CO2 2 ATP
NADH
FADH
Electron Transport Chain (^0 ) ATP
Glycolysis is the first step that cells use. Glycolysis uses glucose. It picks up glucose out of the blood and break it—where it gets its name This occurs in the cytoplasm, and can occur without oxygen It oxidizes glucose (gains electrons 6 carbon) to 2 pyruvate 13 C. Glycolysis is quick and produces a small amount of ATP Most importantly it is a starting point to capture electrons and do so without oxygen. NAD can actually take electrons without breaking apart (most of the time gaining electrons can break covalent bonds) NAD: dead NADH: has electrons NAD and FAD: types of vitamins—you need vitamins to take electrons out of food for energy. These molecules must be consumed in food because our body does not naturally make them.
o ADP and P move through membrane and hydrogen moves turbine to push ADP and P together to form ATP. o The electron Transport chain yields 32 ATP. Phosphorylation: adding phosphate to ADP Basically, as electrons move through the electron transport chain they lose energy which powers the hydrogen ions. So the end products of Glucose is water and CO2. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION o Yeast: fungus (has mitochondria) can exist for extended periods without oxygen. o We can go off glycolysis for extended time but we start to run out of substrate needed for glycolysis o The reason yeast can live is because they have the ability to recreate Pyruvate acid. o The problem with us is we run out of NAD to pick up electron—all of our NADH’s are full. Now there is no where to drop electrons off. o Yeast takes NADH and drops off electrons with pyruvate but now pyruvate is not used to make acetyl CoA. Electrons are stripped from the pyruvate and that splits pyruvate into 2 carbon and alcohol o If alcohol builds up too much it can kill of the yeast. o Basically, alcoholic fermentation turns pyruvate into alcohol and CO2. LACTATE FERMENTATION o Obviously we cannot undergo alcoholic fermentation so we actually go through a different process known as lactate fermentation. o Lactate fermentation turns pyruvate into lactic acid. In Patrick’s case he had extremely high levels of lactate building up. So he has a problem with the presence of oxygen in the cells. Patrick’s cells were doing anaerobic metabolism very well but not aerobic. The problem with this is that this doesn’t yield a lot of ATP Specifically he had a problem with pyruvate dehydrogenase that takes pyruvate and turns it into Acetyl CoA. Therefore he couldn’t use the Krebs Cycle. Alanine is an amino acid that can be converted into pyruvate CLICKER QUESTION 9 o Cannot be B because it has to do with cellular repiration—break down of glucose which is a carb not a fat. CLICKER QUESTION 10 o Fatty acids bypass first two levels of cellular respiration o Answer: E. both carbs and fats and proteins the only difference is where they begin in metabolism CLICKER QUESTION 11 o C. because it skips pyruvate step which is where the problem is. o Because the metabolism of fats does not produce NADH or FADH— FALSE
o Because fats essentially go straight to Krebs cycle which is where most electrons are accepted. Kinase: works in turning enzymes on and off with phosphate. DCA: affects the kinase that turns enzymes on and off CLICKER QUESTION 12 o C. more active o We were working with defective enzyme that is turning off enzyme— so this drug will inhibit the kinase from turning off kinase and making PDH more active PHOTOSYNTHESIS Carbons originally came from glucose CO2 has been increasing in the atmosphere Plants absorb CO2 and snap them together to make larger molecule glucose CO2 from air makes up most plants/ trees. They figured this through experiment in the 1500’s. Weight gain must come from somewhere. The carbon in the atmosphere. Plants can sprout/ grow without soil because of the cellular respiration that plants do. CLICKER QUESTION 1 o A. it will gain weight and most of this biomass will come from CO2 in the air CLICKER QUESTION 2 o Light and water had the most growth (2.63 grams)
Cellular respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis CLICKER QUESTION 3: o CO2- we do not use it- just a bi-product that we make this is why this answer would be wrong o Answer: Both A and B o Plants are not all green they have mitochondria and undergo cellular respiration CLICKER QUESTION 4: o CO2 is completely useless to animals which is why B and C are wrong o D is the correct answer because it includes respiration and plants undergo respiration As Light intensity increased the O2 is increased because plant has more energy to undergo photosynthesis Plant does cellular respiration all the time o Low Light: Consuming O o High Light: producing O Clicker Question 5: o High light: consumes CO o Low Light: produces CO o Answer: C o Dark: oxygen levels declining FEBRUARY 18TH One of the Major ways CO2 gets into the atmosphere is through cellular respiration One of the major way it gets out is through the idea of sinks—photosynthesis Carbon Sequestrian: taking carbon out of the atmosphere and turning it into something solid Fertilization effect: the more CO2 the happier the plants will be. Fertilizers have nothing to do with CO2 but rather nitrogen and phosphate. READING FIGURES o Carbon cycle o Land use (man made) and fossil fuels (man made) o 2.2 + 6.3 = 8. o Sinks are .7 and 2. o .7 + 2.4 = 3. o 8.5- 3.1 = 5.4 5.4/ 8.5 = .63 about 2/3 so…. o 1/3 of what man puts in is sunk. o Trees can be potential sinks CLICKER QUESTION 1: o A. Oceans o Oceans are the largest sink on earth (see figure, 38,000)
Greenhouse Effect: the fact that we get all of this solar radiation from sun during the day—extremely short rays that have energy in things such as UV rays—plants have the ability to transfer this energy into chemical energy. o when solar energy hits earth it loses a bit of energy and is re radiated back as heat. o Heat energy is much lower energy than original solar energy (longer wavelength) and is easier to trap by small molecules in atmosphere. Ex. CO2 or methane gas (trap heat energy Plants have ability to take CO2 in. CO2 goes in with photosynthesis and out with cellular respiration Anything dropped as leaf litter or woody tissue is glucose transfer to decomposing organisms Only photosynthetic organisms can take in CO To increase C-sequestrian you must maximize photosynthesis and decrease carbon dioxide. o Types of trees can be important for example Decidiuous trees drop leaves in one year while conifers drop leaves 2 to 8 years. o Types of plants can also be important. Branches and Stems will last years to decades so you must think about how much of a tree or plant is going to be wood and how much of it consists of leaves. o How much carbon am I really going to be sucking up for indefinite amounts of times? Litter leaves last about a year on the ground before they are decomposed We don’t really worry about fine roots because they do not last long o Compost: harboring specific types of bacteria that convert the leaf matter into humus—lasts for up to decades. Composting is good in increasing C-sequestrian o Dead leaves especially if they are not green are not doing any photosynthesis. CLICKER QUESTION 2: o I would give him Two stars: composting is good. However, grass is not good. There is no stem or rooty part to grasp so when you cut your grass it is immediately decomposed—not creating a sink. CLICKER QUESTION 3: o The following things increase C-Sequestrian: Nitrogen Water (starting product in photosynthesis) Increased temperature High pollution will PREVENT plants from doing their job. You want to increase c-sequestrian because it is taking CO2 out of the atmosphere and transferring it to solid. Nitrogen o Nitrogen is used in making nucleotides, and amino acids.
o Electrons are very charged in DNA so if you put electrical impulse— current DNA moves through gel and separates. o Smaller on the bottom, bigger on the top CLICKER QUESTION 3 o C. 580 because it is smaller than 600 but bigger than 500 on the picture Brightness: it is brighter on the picture because there is more DNA. You would probably need about one million copies of DNA to actually see it with the naked eye. This is not realistic at crime scenes which led them to figure a way of duplicating DNA DNA’s structure makes it very easy to duplicate. o Phosphate bonds with sugar of nucleotide next to it—which is how they connect to one another Kind of like legoes. It is the same chemical bond over and over o Two chains of DNA are opposite to each other (flipped over) and attached to each other through bases (Nitrogen Base). o Base pairs always consist of G-C and A-T (complementary) o They are anti parallel 5’ and 3’: they are always opposite of each other: double helix CLICKER QUESTION 4: o B. opposite orientation.
BIOL 1103 Book Notes
- Energy from food..... Sections 7.6-7.
- Photosynthesis..... Sections 8.1-8.
- Climate change..... Sections 35.1-35.
- DNA..... Sections 3.6, 9.1, 13.2, 15.4, and page
The first stage of photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoids where the sunlight is absorbed and the electrons are passed to an NADP+ and are transported outside of the thylakoids into the stroma where they combine with carbon dioxide and sugar. 8.3 Stage 1: The Steps of the Light Reactions Solar energy arrives as photosystem II’s antennae molecules and then arrives at the reaction center. This energy boosts an electron so that it moves to another part of the reaction center and gains energy. The electron travels to the reaction center where it will boosted again with energy. Photosystem I then boosts the electron to an even higher energy state and attaches it to NADP+. The NADPH travels through the Calvin cycle which yields a high-energy sugar. 8.4 What Makes Light Reactions So Important? The splitting of water molecules in plants supplies the Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen. 8.5 Stage 2: The Calvin Cycle First step: fixation- carbon dioxide is fixed into the starting sugar, RuBP. The RuBP interacts with ATP and then receives the energetic electrons from NADPH. Each turn of the Calvin cycle thus creates a molecule of G3P. Climate Change 35.1 The Ecosystem Biotic- living Abiotic- nonliving Ecosystem- a community of organisms and the environment where they interact
35.2 Abiotic Factors Are a Major Component of Any Ecosystem Biogeochemical cycling- water and nutrients convert back and forth between the biotic and abiotic realms Carbon cycle- plants take in CO2, organisms respire and release CO2, plants and animals die and decompose which releases CO2, some of the CO2 remains in the dead organisms as coal or oil, the burning of these fossil fuels releases CO2. Nitrogen fixation- the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be used by ogranisms. Nitrogen can be a limiting factor in food production. The hydrologic cycle- evaporation and precipitation. 35.3 How Energy Flows through Ecosystems Producers- plants and other photosynthesizers Consumers- organisms that eat other organisms Trophic level- an organisms position on the food chain which involves the transfer of energy from one organism to another Producers (1st) > Primary consumers (2nd) > Secondary consumers (3rd) > Tertiary consumers (4th) Energy flow can be measured in kilocalories. Only 10% of a trophic level’s energy is likely to pass to the next level. DNA 3.6 Nucleic Acids DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid- the primary informative molecule of life, composed of two linked chains of nucelotides Nucleotide- has a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen containing base 9.1 An Introduction to Genetics DNA contains an organisms genome, the complete collection of an organisms genetic information. This information is contained in the sequence of bases in a DNA strand. 13.2 Watson and Crick: The Double Helix
