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PAPER-
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH AND STATISTICS
UNIT-
1.0. OBJECTIVES
1.1. Meaning definition and purpose of Social Work Research 1.1.1. Definition of Social Work Research 1.1.2. Purpose of Social Work Research 1.2. SOCIAL RESEARCH and SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 1.3 Scientific Method: 1.3.1. Nature 1.3.2. Characteristics of Scientific Method 1.3.3 Problems of the Social Sciences 1.4. PURPOSE AND STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS 1.5: CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONALISATION OF CONCEPTS: 1.6 VARIABLES AND ITS TYPES 1.7. HYPOTHESIS: SOURCES, FORMULATION, ATTRIBUTES AND TYPES 1.7.1 Criteria for formulation of Hypothesis 1.7.2Attributes of a Valid or Usable Hypothesis 1.7.3. Sources of Hypothesis
- Types of Hypothesis
- Attributes of Hypothesis 1. 8. Key Words 1.9. References:
UNIT-
1.0. OBJECTIVES
-To know the meaning, definition and purpose of social work research. -To understand the concept of social research and its relationship with social work research. -To understand the meaning nature and characteristics of scientific method. -To cognize the purpose and steps in research process.
- To know about the concepts and how they are operationalised -To understand the variables and their types.
1.1. Meaning definition and purpose of Social Work Research Any study to create new knowledge or to add to the existing store house of knowledge, may it be through observation or by any other methods is called research. Social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It aims at providing information that can be taken into consideration by social workers provide to making decisions which are likely to affect their clients or schemes of things or agencies which are involved in the use of alternative intervention techniques or transformation or modification of client / programme / objectives etc.
The circumstances under which the application of the methods and techniques of social work research are warranted are the following.
- Interest in the investigation or assessment of the nature and extent of the problems of client in terms of obtaining data regarding the actual or potential effectiveness of the client. For example, the social workers may be interested in cognizing as to what extent the intervention would be effective in solving client’s problem of martial maladjustment
- Desire to assess the effectiveness of the techniques of role play in comparison with group discussion. For example, interesting knowledge of drug abuse among school going children.
- Desire to assess the opinion of members of community before taking decision to change the programme or purpose of the community organizer.
differently, the question which needs be answered through social work research is: what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the attainment of social work group objectives? That apart, it also helps in seeking answers for surmounting the difficulties faced by the practitioners of social work in the practice of their profession, Furthermore, it provides the knowledge for social work for building theory and for practice also. Another major purpose of social work has always been to focus on assessment of practitioner’s work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or programmes which are concerned with the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. A part from the aforesaid purpose, a special purpose of social work research is evaluation. In fact, this is the reason that designates social work research as evaluative research. The varieties of evaluative researches undertaken in social work research are based on impacts or effects, efficacy and effectiveness. The core of evaluative research under the rubric of social work research lies in evaluation of agencies and its projects and programmes.
For the social work professionals, the purpose of social work research is to know the problems faced by professional social workers in social work agencies and communities in its concern with social work functions.
The purpose of social work research may briefly be state below:
- To attempt at understanding through the studies to establish, identity and measure the need for service.
- To measure the services rendered as they relate to needs.
- To examine, measure and evaluate the consequences of social work intervention.
- To assess the efficacy of specific techniques of offering services.
- To study the methodological aspects of social work.
1.2 SOCIAL RESEARCH and SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH Search implies thorough investigation and the term 'research' which has been derived from the French word 'rechercher', 're' and 'chercher', means a critical examination of a topic or subject to discover new facts for increasing the sum total of human knowledge. It is a method for discovery of new knowledge which augments to the existing body of organized
facts, ideals and aspiration, "Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusions". Research per se constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which necessitates critical thinking. "It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at least, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses." "It is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art." Thus, research is a "systemized effort to, gain new knowledge." Research is characterised by : (i) a specific problem. Hi) involvement in original work, (Ui) resting upon a mental attitude of curiosity, (iv) requirement of an open mind, (v) resting upon the assumption that everything is subject to law and order, (vi) discovery of laws and generalizations (vii) study of cause and effect (vii) measurement and (ix) involvement in a conscious technique. Social research implies discovery of some facts concealed in a social phenomenon or some laws governing it. It is mainly concerned with the cause and effect relationship of human behaviour and the discovery of new facts as well as the verification of old facts. Therefore, "we may define social research as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, interrelationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them." While studying human behaviour and social problems and discovering new interrelations, new knowledge, new facts and verifying old ones, social research applies the scientific method and tries to establish the causal connection between various human activities and the natural laws governing them by means of logical and systematized methods because the human behaviour may be motivated by certain rules and laws and does not appear haphazardly. Briefly stated, social research implies scientific investigation conducted in the field of social as well as behavioral sciences.
Social research has many objectives which may be discussed below:
1. Manipulation of things, concepts and symbols : While dealing with things the scientist remains at the concrete level. He is able to purposefully handle things for experimentation. But at this level his results are at best
of systematic knowledge occurs at least in a couple of ways. First in cognizing certain aspects of phenomena which were not examined in these terms prior to the advent of the new general proposition. Secondly in the light of new observation, the phenomena under investigation may be incorporated in a comparatively large class of phenomena, so as to be governed by a uniform law. As a result, the new system of knowledge not only accumulates more units under its conceptual scheme, but also appreciates greater depth of understanding and bettering of predictions.
5. Knowledge may be used for theory building or practical application : By seeking to explain the unexplained social phenomena, clarifying the doubtful one and correcting the misconceived facts relating to it, social research provides the scope to use the fruits of research in two possible ways : (a) theory building (.6) practical application. In its basic or pure form social research gathers knowledge for the sake of it, for building a theory in order to explain human behaviour in its totality, only for the satisfaction of knowing. For construction of theoretic models, the researcher organizes knowledge into propositions and then meaningfully articulated those propositions to constitute a more abstract conceptual system pertaining to a class of phenomena, influenced by a certain class of conditions. In its practical or applied form, social research gathers information regarding the betterment of quality of life in social settings. The findings of social research are used as the means to an end, not construed just as an end in itself. From its utilitarian point of view the results of social research provide decision makers with proper guidelines for policy making, social welfare, amelioration of practical problems, mitigation or resolution of social conflict and tensions as well as rectification and removal of social evils. It is generally believed that social research and social work research do not have much difference as the purpose of promoting the welfare of the humanity through investigation remains common to both. Whereas the social work research commences with practical problems, social research aims at producing such knowledge that can be of use in planning and executing the social work programmes .Social research also has the objective of accumulating knowledge for understanding the social life of human beings. The social work research is an applied research which has the purpose of gaining knowledge in order to control or change human behaviour. On the other hand, social research may have practical as well as theoretical concern. Social work research serves the objectives of social work. On the contrary, social research does not have any specific goal. The main objective is to enhance in the knowledge of any social science. Moreover the social work research renders helps to the social workers for dealing which social problems relating to their client which
may be afflicting either individual or the group or community. Social research may be of use to social worker as well as entire field of social work as it helps in enhancing the knowledge of dealing with and understating human behaviour.
1.3 Scientific Method:
1.3.1. Nature Scientific method is "an objective, logical and systematic method of analysis of phenomena, devised to permit the accumulation of reliable knowledge".. It is characterized by an intellectual attitude and is not confined to a field of specific subject matter, but rather to- a procedure or mode of investigation. As Karl Pearson emphasizes, "the scientific method is one and the same in all branches and the method of all logically trained minds....the unity of all sciences consists alone in their method, not in their materials". Since facts may be related to any field, the facts themselves do not make the science, but by the method they are dealing with. Thus, science is free from any particular subject matter. It is not wrapped with any particular body of facts.4 It deals with physical as well as psychical process by taking into account the entire knowable universe for its subject. It deals with man as well as nature, bringing into its fold everything to which its method can be extended. Hence a science is not made by the nature of things with which it is concerned but by the method through which the things are dealt with. As a systematic step by step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning,' scientific method aims at gaining knowledge of the universe. It never belongs to a particular body of knowledge. George Lundberg considers scientific method as one consisting of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of data. The main difference between day-to-day generalization and the scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and the general validity of the latter. According to Wolfe, "any mode of investigation by which science has been built up and is being developed is entitled to be called scientific method." Scientific method is marked, says Karl Pearson, "by three features, viz., careful and accurate classification of facts and observation of their correlation and sequence; discovery of Scientific Laws with the aid of creative imagination; and self-criticism."
1.3.2. Characteristics of Scientific Method
for verification. Repeated replications strengthen the conclusions and lend added evidence to it. At the same time, it also ensures that mistakes, if any, in the initial enquiry are not only repeated, but also removed in the process. Therefore Dewey says that it is "a method of knowing which is self-corrective in operation, that learns from failures as from successes." Modern science, in contrast to ancient science, has developed through the exposure of its methods and conclusions to critical scrutiny. Criticism has always been the very life-blood of science, says Karl Pearson.
- Empiricism : Empiricism implies that ascientific investigation must be conducted empirically. In other words, our views about some or the other aspect of society must be based on clear and definite factual evidence. Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusion is admitted when it is based on evidence. Such evidence must be produced by observing the relevant social reality with the help of human senses, such as sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Relevant data are gathered by observation and experimentation. Nothing is left td speculation. Social reality may, at present, be observed directly with the help of human senses or indirectly with the support of some instruments so as to aid and extend the ability to observe. The validity and reliability of data are thoroughly checked and carefully analyzed by employing appropriate methods. On the basis of the findings of analysis, conclusion is reached.
- Use of Concepts: Concepts are the building blocks of theory. A fact is a logical construct of concepts. A concept abstracted from the sense perceptions and should not be confused with the phenomenon itself. Since the ordinary language fails to convey adequately the implications of scientific terms, science evolves its own language. These linguistic apparatus of science are manipulated along with symbols with a view to contribute immensely to the established body of systematic knowledge. The scientist constantly depends upon relevant concepts for moving gradually from concrete sense data to the higher levels of abstraction.
- Verifiability : Verifiability presupposes that the phenomena must be capable of being observed and measured. Scientific method presupposes that knowledge in order to be valid, should consist of propositions amenable to empiricism. All evidence must be based on observation. Science, being empirical, claims that knowledge must be referred to concrete human experiences so as to make verification possible. Lundberg believes that, "if the verification of deduction involves condition of observation which is impracticable or impossible of attainment the theory is metaphysical rather than scientific." In order to bring greater exactitude, verification must also be accompanied by measurement.
- Objectivity : By objectivity it is meant that the scientific investigation must not be influenced by the subjective biases of the investigator. Rather the phenomena are observed in its true form. The man of science is committed to the belief that to go nearer to the goal of truth, he must above all things, believe that the phenomenon world is a reality, independent of beliefs, hopes or fear or fears of any individual, all of which we find out not by intuition and speculation but by actual observation.^8
According to Lundberg, "the first requisite of all sound knowledge is the determination and ability to get at naked facts and not to be influenced by mere appearances or by prevalent notions or by one's wishes’ Objectivity is the hall mark of scientific method. Green visualizes objectivity as "the willingness and ability to examine evidence dispassionately." The main criterion of objectivity is that the conclusion should not vary from person to person, all person should reach the same conclusion. The scientific man must above all things, have a detached view as the phenomena in which he himself is involved as on observer.
In the opinion of J. Galtung, objectivity is the composite of 'intra-subjectivity', and 'inter subjectivity.' Testing of intra-subjectivity pre-supposes that repeated observation of phenomenon by the same observer will produce the constant data. On the other hand the
- Predictability: Science can make prediction by its logical reasoning and inferences establishing the cause and effect relationship among different phenomena. The foundation of science is based upon a faith in causality that the past and future belong to the same continuum. Based on the "law of uniformity of nature" stating that the nature will behave similarly under similar conditions, science believes that predictions about phenomena must rest on the bed-rock of the trend repeatedly observed. It also believes that probably the same trend would manifest itself in some concrete effects. Predictability depends upon two essential conditions, such as the fixity of cause and effect relationship and the stability of causative factors. Prediction in the domain of science is grounded in the established knowledge concerning order among facts. However, the scientific expectation may not always be accurate. Science can only make prediction about the state of things on the basis of the law of causation and law of uniformity of nature with certain degree of accuracy. "Scientific knowledge is a body of statements of varying degrees of certainty, some most unsure, some nearly sure, some absolutely uncertain."
- Relativism; Relativism implies that the results obtained through scientific method are never considered as absolute truths. Propositions found valid in the light of scientific method under certain circumstances may be questioned on the face of new evidence. Results of scientific investigation are only tentative and never considered as permanent. They have got relative credibility as a proposition is considered valid so long as it is not refuted in the future. Relativism as a principle of scientific method further holds that no notions are sacred to the scientist, no propositions are privileged to the researcher or no truths are absolute to an investigator.
- Skepticism: Skepticism is that principle of science which holds that the scientist must possess the capacity to view skeptically the validity of prevailing social theories. He must not be swayed away by the popularity of a given proposition despite its general acceptance. The scientist is free to be skeptical of any explanation on the ground that they not only lack in authenticity but also sufficiency of evidence. "
Quantification: All observations in the domain of science must be quantified for precision. All sets of verified generalizations which form the basis for scientific inquiry are to be accepted in mathematical language.
Systematization: While dealing with the empirical truths and analysing the true nature of these empirical objects, science follows a systematic and formal method. Such a rigorous method of analysis and generalisation enables the votaries of science to re-examine the results in different occasions. In the realm of science a couple of methods is widely prevalent- inductive and deductive. In inductive method, the particular truths are gathered gradually and continually in empirical situation till the most general truth is established. On the contrary, in deductive methods the truths of the propositions are not questioned, conclusions are drawn from those self-evident propositions. Thus induction proceeds from particular to general and the reverse process is evinced in the deductive method for the discovery of the truth that lies concealed within a set of statements. For the extreme deductionists, a set of self evident propositions stand at the head of the system and from these other theorems are to be derived by the process of reasoning. On the other hand the extreme inductionist or empiricist's view of the matter is that science must construct its axioms from sense data moving from particulars to arrive at the most general axioms in a gradual and continual manner. The true method of science is induction for deduction with a view to reconstructions because it borrows the elements of’ formal truth' and 'material truth' from deduction and induction s respectively and thereafter applies logical reasoning for establishing its own truth. Larabee holds in this regard, "If extreme rationalist (deductionist) is like a spider spinning out theories from within, the extreme empiricist (inductionist) is to be compared to an ant which piles useless heaps of facts. Better than either the spider or the ant is the
1.4. PURPOSE AND STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process involves a series of steps progressing from the formulation of research problem through survey of literature, formulation of hypothesis, preparation of research design, determination of sample design, collection of data, execution of the project, analysis and interpretation of data and testing of hypothesis to presentation of the conclusions. Such a series of actions, concerning a lot of shifts from one kind of activity to the other do not, however, reflect a singular concentration on any particular step at any point of time. Rather, they are required to be effectively carried out in the desired sequence at different points on specific operations, with the anticipation at each step the requirement of the subsequent steps in the process of research. Although certain steps are designated as the major ones, those are only the groupings of classes of operations out of hundreds, each contributing to social research in its own way. Similarly the sequential and consecutive steps never imply that the process of research corresponds to their neat execution as each of these steps are involved in a set of inter- related operations and each one of these operations will determine the quality of research. Because of their effect on the quality of research, a small operational lapse anywhere may have adverse effect on the standard of investigation.
It is visualized that the research process travels a circular path because the findings of research studies may most often generate fresh ideas and problems which need further investigation. Furthermore, the aforesaid major steps may overlap in time sequence and their activities may be functionally interrelated, involving both backward as well as forward linkages. Whereas backward linkage implies substantial impact of the subsequent steps on the preceding steps in the process of research, the forward linkage indicates the tremendous impact of the preceding steps on the structure of the following steps. Practically, the major steps involving their corresponding activities may overlap continuously instead of adhering to a strictly prescribed sequence, because the researcher should always bear it in mind that the different steps involved the process of research are neither mutually exclusive nor separate and distinct. In such a situation, it is but quite natural that the researcher will have to constantly expect at each step in the process of research the exigency of the subsequent steps. Generally the following order is maintained as a useful procedural guideline in the sequence of the major steps of social research:
- Formulation of Research Problem.
- Review of Literature.
- Formulation of Hypotheses.
- Working out the Research Design.
- Defining the Universe of Study.
- Determining Sample Design.
- Administering the Tools of Data Collection.
- Analysis of Data.
- Testing of Hypotheses.
- Generalisation and Interpretation.
- Reporting the Research.
In real terms research begins with a problem which needs solution. Such a perception on the part of the researcher, first of all, falls within the general area of interest indicating to locate the problem either in the quest of some intellectual pursuit or for some practical concern, such as finding out a practical solution to a problem, evaluation of a programme in the light of new facts, gathering of relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making. While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are likely to be influenced by their own personal values as well as the prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to their values and societies differ in respect of their preference of different spheres, the choice of topics in social research vary widely. As the general topic fails to provide the ability to examine the relevance of data, adopt the methods or to organize them, the need for formulation of a specific problem is always felt. This makes the goal of the researcher clear-cut. It not only guides the researcher in exploration, but also progressively sharpens the focus of questions by narrowing down the coverage like a pinpoint. For example, if the general topic is compared with the base of a pyramid, the specific topic may resemble the apex of it. In any case, formulation of a problem, arising out of theoretical situation or practical concern, is not an easy task, as it appears to be. In real terms it is a uphill task, so much so that even a scientist of the stature of Charles Darwin has gone to the length of saying that "Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what the problems were than to solve them." As a problem involves some difficulty experienced by the investigator, the formulation of the problem should make its various components explicit in such a manner that it will justify the saying that "a problem well put is half solved" R.K. Merton has identified three important questions as the three principal components involved in the process of formulation
animals...man builds upon the accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past. In the words of C.V. Good "the keys to the vast store house of published literature may open doors to sources of significant problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpful orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection of procedure and comparative data for interpretation of results." The essentiality of the review of literature remains in the fact that it provides the researcher with an indication of the direction, updates information relating to researcher's own problem, avoids the replication of the study of findings, provides the scope for analogy and formulation of hypothesis. The main objectives of review of related literature are : {i) to provide theories, ideas, explanations or hypotheses, which are likely to be helpful in the formulation of research problem, (ii) to avoid overlapping studies (Hi) to be a fertile source for formulating hypothesis, (iv) to suggest the methods of data collection, procedures, to explore the sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem, (u) to gather comparative data and findings of earlier researches which are of use in the interpretation of data and analysis of results, (vi) to enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of interest, and (vii) to keep the researcher abreast of the most recent development in his area of activity.
1.5: CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONALISATION OF CONCEPTS: Concepts are the building blocks of theory. A fact is a logical construct of concepts. A concept is abstracted from the sense perceptions and should not be confused with the phenomenon itself. Since the ordinary language fails to convey adequately the implications of scientific terms, science evolves its own language. These linguistic apparatus of science are manipulated along with symbols with a view to contribute immensely to the established body of systematic knowledge. The scientist constantly depends upon relevant concepts for moving gradually from concrete sense data to the higher levels of abstraction. Thus concepts are mental images and we assign terms to these images so that we can communicate effectively. As regards operationalisation of concept, the researcher is concerned with spelling out exactly and precisely how the concept will be measured. He will have to describe the operations that will be undertaken in measuring the concept. The process of developing operational definition is not necessarily linear, or step by step in an ordered manner. When attempting to operationalize, the researcher may have to modify his conceptual definition or when
attempting to select a data collection method, his operationalisation may be affected. This is a circular process.
1.6 VARIABLES AND ITS TYPES A variable is anything that is subject to change. It is a concept which can take on different qualitative or quantitative values. The concepts like income, height, weight are the examples of variables. When we simply say lower income or higher income, large size or small size, we treat the property "income" or "size" or an individual or landed property respectively qualitatively. But when we refer the income of an individual as Rs. 15,000 per month or the size of the farm as 2 acres, we treat the "income" or "size" quantitatively. The phenomena which are capable of taking on quantitatively different values are called continuous variables. A continuous variable can assume any numerical value within a specific range. On the other hand the non-continuous variables are expressed in integer values. The individual values concerning such variables fall on the scale only with different gaps. For example, age is a continuous variable, contrary to the number of off-springs which is non- continuous variable. A distinction is also made between dependent variable and independent variable In experimental research the independent variable is called manipulated variable and the dependent variable, which is the measure of some dimension of behavior is called a natural variable. The dependent variables is so called because it depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable. For example, if weight is depend upon age, the weight is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable stated otherwise, independent variables are construed to be the presumed causes and dependent variables are the presumed effects. In a study the researcher manipulates or mea the independent variable so as to determine its effect on other variables, cause the dependent variables. On the other hand the dependent variable is measure 1 ^ study how it has responded to a cause or treatment. There may be one or more independent variables which are related to the purpose of study, but are likely affect the dependent variable. Such variables are cat extraneous variable. In a good research design, the researcher always tries to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s) by exercising 'control'. Unless the extraneonous independent variables are controlled in an experiment, the effect can not be attributed entirely to the independent variable for the purpose of study.
