Download Cultural Inequality in Mass Media: The Underrepresentation of Asian Men and Black Women and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Educational Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
Psychology of Popular Media Culture
Gendered Race in Mass Media: Invisibility of Asian Men
and Black Women in Popular Magazines
Joanna Schug, Nicholas P. Alt, Philip S. Lu, Monika Gosin, and Jennifer L. Fay
Online First Publication, August 24, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm
CITATION
Schug, J., Alt, N. P., Lu, P. S., Gosin, M., & Fay, J. L. (2015, August 24). Gendered Race in
Mass Media: Invisibility of Asian Men and Black Women in Popular Magazines. Psychology of
Popular Media Culture. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm
Gendered Race in Mass Media: Invisibility of Asian Men and Black Women in Popular Magazines
Joanna Schug and Nicholas P. Alt
College of William & Mary
Philip S. Lu
University of California Los Angeles
Monika Gosin and Jennifer L. Fay
College of William & Mary
According to gendered race theory, racial stereotypes can contain a gendered compo- nent whereby certain racial and ethnic groups are viewed as being more prototypically masculine or feminine. A number of studies investigating gendered race stereotypes have found that Blacks in North American society are represented and conceived as prototypically masculine, while Asians are represented and conceived of as prototyp- ically feminine. This study examined whether patterns consistent with gendered race prototypes appear in mass media depictions, specifically in popular magazines, such that Asian men and Black women are proportionally less likely than other groups to be depicted. The perceived race and gender of 8,672 individuals depicted within 5 issues each of 6 popular magazines were examined quantitatively to examine whether indi- viduals from nonprototypical gendered race categories were less likely to be depicted. The results indicated that Asian women were more likely to be depicted than Asian men, while Black men were more likely to be depicted than Black women, relative to Whites. These results suggest that, consistent with theories of gendered race and intersectional invisibility, individuals deemed less prototypical of their race and gender categories are rendered invisible in societal representations.
Keywords: gendered race, intersectionality, invisibility, mass media, magazines
To date, a number of studies have focused on how nonprototypical members of racial and eth- nic groups are overlooked or subsumed both on a societal and cognitive level. This research has generally been conducted from the standpoint of intersectionality (Babbitt, 2013; Cole, 2009; McCall, 2005; Settles, 2006; Warner & Shields, 2013), a theoretical framework that investigates the unique experiences and perceptions of those who belong to more than one subordinate or
derogated social category. The term “intersec- tionality” was coined by Crenshaw (1991) to highlight the underrepresented experiences of Black women and how Black women suffered from unique discrimination beyond the additive effects of belonging to two marginalized groups. One consequence of this novel ap- proach to understanding identity was to expose how particular social categories, such as the category “Black,” often excluded the experi- ences of other groups, such as women, within that category (McCall, 2005). Since its concep- tion, the theory of intersectionality has been applied to understand how a multitude of group memberships (race, gender, class, and sexual orientation) interact with one another (see Hacker, 1951 for a discussion of women as a minority group). One major theory stemming from research on intersectionality is “intersectional invisibility,” which proposes that nonprototypical members of overarching groups are often overlooked and underrepresented (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach,
Joanna Schug and Nicholas P. Alt, Department of Psy- chology, College of William & Mary; Philip S. Lu, Depart- ment of Sociology, University of California Los Angeles; Monika Gosin, Department of Sociology, College of Wil- liam & Mary; Jennifer L. Fay, College of William & Mary. Nicholas P. Alt is now at Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles. Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- dressed to Joanna Schug, Department of Psychology, Col- lege of William & Mary, P.O. Box 8795, Willamsburg, VA
- E-mail: jschug@wm.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2015 American Psychological Association 2015, Vol. 4, No. 4, 000 2160-4134/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm
1
reviewed above, have demonstrated how Black women face invisibility in both cognition and in society, few studies have examined the invisi- bility of both Asian men and Black women. One notable exception is Schug et al.’s (2015, Study
- study which found that statements made by Asian men were less likely to be remembered than statements made by White men, White women, and Asian women, congruent with a previous study examining the invisibility of Black women (Sesko & Biernat, 2010), and that participants who were tasked to write a study about a typical Asian, Black, or White protag- onist were least likely to write about an Asian man and most likely to write about a Black man, relative to the proportion of White men and women protagonists generated by participants (Schug et al., 2015, Study 2). Although these studies provide strong pre- liminary evidence that both Asian men and Black women face invisibility on a cognitive level, thus far there have been no studies inves- tigating whether Asian men and Black women are less likely to be depicted in mass media representations. Thus, the question of whether this invisibility extends to media representa- tions of Asian men and Black women remains unanswered.
Invisibility of Asian Men and Black Women in Mass Media
By integrating the theoretical frameworks of intersectional invisibility and gendered race the- ory, it can be argued that Black women and Asian men will suffer from invisibility at the cultural level, particularly in mass media repre- sentations. While previous scholarship points to the cultural invisibility of Black women (Cren- shaw, 1991, hooks, 1989), limited work has examined the cultural invisibility of Asian men. There exists, however, reasonable evidence from fields such as sociology and critical race theory suggesting that Asian men suffer from cultural invisibility. Specifically, scholars in Asian American studies have called attention to processes of emasculinization of Asian men and the relative invisibility of Asian American mas- culine figures in North American culture, par- ticularly beyond stereotypical representations such as the kung-fu master (e.g., Eng, 2001; Espiritu, 2008; Shimizu, 2012). Yet, thus far no studies have quantitatively assessed the cultural
invisibility of both groups by examining whether Asian men are indeed depicted less frequently than Asian women, and Black women are depicted less frequently than Black men in mass media. In order to test the cultural invisibility of Asian men and Black women in a mass media source, this study examined the number of de- pictions of Asian men and Black women in popular magazines distributed in the United States. Popular magazines offer a strong artifact for analysis, as they often contain highly stereo- typical images thought to both represent and reinforce stereotypes related to race and gender (Baker, 2005; Colfax & Sternberg, 1972; Court- ney & Lockeretz, 1971; Gerbner, 1969; Grady, 2007; Hovland, McMahan, Lee, Hwang, & Kim, 2005; Humphrey & Schuman, 1984; Kang, 1997; Millard & Grant, 2006; Mok, 1998a; Plous & Neptune, 1997; Reichert & Car- penter, 2004). For instance, magazines mar- keted to women have been shown to perpetuate sexism and unrealistic body images (e.g., Bal- laster, Beetham, Frazer, & Hebron, 1991; Cu- sumano & Thompson, 1997; Millard & Grant, 2006). Similarly, magazines marketed to men are known to depict hegemonic ideals of mas- culinity, generating and validating acceptable and culturally sanctioned appearances and be- haviors (Ricciardelli, Clow, & White, 2010; Vigorito & Curry, 1998). In particular, maga- zines marketed toward men tend to depict men as more muscular than they are depicted in magazines marketed toward women (Frederick, Fessler, & Haselton, 2005) suggesting that mag- azines showcase idealized forms of gender roles. Thus, in order to assess mass media rep- resentations the race and gender of all images depicting people in a selection of popular men’s and women’s magazines were examined in this study.
Hypotheses
As described above, previous research has demonstrated that Asian men and Black women are overlooked and rendered invisible on a cog- nitive level (e.g., Schug et al., 2015), but to date there have been no studies examining whether this invisibility extends to portrayals in a mass media source. Thus, this study sought to deter- mine whether Asian men and Black women would be less likely than Asian women or Black
INVISIBILITY OF ASIAN MEN AND BLACK WOMEN 3
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
men to be depicted in popular magazines. The hypotheses for the current study are outlined below. First, as previous work stemming from the perspective of intersectional invisibility has shown, Black women are deemed to be less prototypical of the category “Black” and of the category women, and as such are often over- looked on a societal (e.g., Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008) and on a cognitive (e.g., Sesko & Biernat, 2010) level. Thus, the first hypothesis is as follows:
Hypothesis 1: Overall, Black women will be depicted proportionally less frequently in popular men and women’s magazines than Black men, relative to the gender pro- portions of Asians or Whites.
However, the prediction that Black women specifically will be underrepresented could be made both from the perspective of traditional intersectional invisibility, which argues that in- dividuals from multiple minority categories will be rendered invisible, as well as the combina- tion of gendered race theory and nonprototypi- cal invisibility (Schug et al., 2015), which ar- gues that any individual who is deemed nonprototypical of their overarching group cat- egory will suffer from invisibility. Thus, the second hypothesis was designed to delineate these explanations: Hypothesis 2: Asian men will be depicted less frequently in magazines than Asian women, relative to the gender proportion of Blacks and Whites.
This hypothesis does not fall in line with the predictions made from intersectional invisibil- ity, which suggests that individuals who belong to multiple minority or derogated social catego- ries will experience invisibility, as Asian men do not occupy two marginalized social catego- ries. Instead, this prediction stems from inte- grating the frameworks of intersectional invisi- bility (e.g., Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008; Sesko & Biernat, 2010) and gendered race the- ory (e.g., Galinsky et al., 2013; Schug et al., 2015), which in combination suggest that be- cause Asians are construed as prototypically female and Blacks as prototypically male, Asian men and Black women will be rendered “invis- ible” in the sense that they will be depicted less
frequently in magazines. Further, these predic- tions made from the above hypotheses were expected to appear both in magazines marketed to men and magazines marketed to women, and were not expected to differ according to the genre of the magazine.
Materials
In order to examine these hypotheses, six magazine titles were selected based on their overall readership and thematic comparability. Three men’s magazines and three women’s magazines marketed toward North American adults between the ages of 18 –39 were exam- ined. To ensure that the results were not limited to particular magazine genres, one magazine title targeted to men or women respectively for three categories: fashion (GQ and Vogue), fit- ness (Men’s Health and Women’s Health), and sexual themes (Maxim and Cosmopolitan) was selected. These broad themes, representing a sample of popular magazines marketed to the North American market, are relevant to the hy- potheses because prior studies have indicated that these types of magazines tend to showcase culturally normative ideals of physical appear- ance, clothing and grooming, body size, and physique (Ricciardelli et al., 2010; Vokey, Tefft, & Tysiaczny, 2013), as well as normative attitudes toward sex and sexuality (i.e., Farvid & Braun, 2006; Taylor, 2006). Magazines titles were selected according to circulation numbers and prior research. For each category, two titles (one marketed to men and one marketed to women) from each cate- gory which shared a publisher and had high overall circulation were chosen (data were ac- quired from the The Association of Magazine Media, 2012), with the exception of the sexual themes category for which two highly circu- lated magazines published by the same pub- lisher were not available. GQ and Vogue were chosen as representative of magazines marketed toward men and women in the domain of fash- ion since both magazines are highly circulated (959,661 and 1,256,078, respectively) within the United States and share the same publisher (Condé Nast Publications), and because these two magazines have been studied in prior in- vestigations of depictions of men and women in fashion magazines (Thompson, 2000). Like- wise, Men’s Health and Women’s Health were
4 SCHUG, ALT, LU, GOSIN, AND FAY
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
typicality as determined by gendered race can lead to invisibility can be found in the effect for Asians. Indeed, supporting Hypothesis 2, the proportion of Asian men to women was much lower than the proportion for Whites (b 0. 89, p .0001). These results are consistent with the main hypothesis which predicts that the proportions of males to females will mirror the gendered race prototype for each group such that Asian men and Black women are underrep- resented relative to other categories. In terms of the overall frequency of depictions, Whites were much more likely to be depicted versus
non-Whites, and Asians were least likely to be depicted relative to all other groups. While the previous model confirmed both hypotheses, the next model statistically con- trolled for the effect of magazine genre to con- firm that these results were not caused by any particular magazine genre. This model included the main effect of magazine type (fashion, fit- ness, sexual theme) and the interaction terms between perceived race and magazine genre, as shown in the right panel of Table 2. For maga- zine type, fashion magazines were used as the reference group. The results of this analysis
Table 1 Frequencies and Proportions of Men and Women For Magazines Targeted Toward Men and Magazines Targeted Toward Women
Perceived race
Men’s magazines Women’s magazines Overall Female Male Female Male Female Male N % N % N % N % N % N % Asian 27 46.55 31 53.45 113 94.96 6 5.04 140 79.10 37 20. Black 64 12.28 457 87.72 332 74.61 113 25.39 396 40.99 570 59. White 1,018 31.27 2,238 68.73 3,019 78.50 827 21.5 4,037 56.84 3,065 43. Other 46 31.08 102 68.92 201 72.04 78 27.96 247 57.85 180 42. Total 1,155 39.00 2,828 71.00 3,665 78.16 1,024 21.84 4,820 55.58 3,852 44.
Table 2 Logistic Regression of Factors Influencing Depictions in Popular Magazines
Variable
Model 1 Model 2 b ( SE ) Wald ^2 b ( SE ) Wald ^2 Perceived race Asian .94 (.14) 49.94^ .87 (.15) 33.32 Black .75 (.07) 109.71^ .77 (.08) 97.41 Other .07 (.09) .68 .01 (.10). Magazine type Fitness .53 (.09) 30.92 Sexual theme .46 (.08) 32.93 Interaction terms Asian Fitness .17 (.23). Asian Sexual theme .19 (.20). Black Fitness .08 (.12). Black Sexual theme .03 (.11). Other Fitness .21 (.16) 1. Other Sexual theme .29 (.13) 4.77 Intercept .39 (.06) 49.94^ .30 (.06) 25.75 Log likelihood 11782.541 11530. Note. N 8,672. SE standard error. The dependent variable is the coded gender of the portrayal (male 1). The reference group for race is White, and the reference group for magazine type is fashion magazine. (^) p .05. (^) p .001.
6 SCHUG, ALT, LU, GOSIN, AND FAY
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
showed that controlling for the type of maga- zine does not change the effects reported above: the positive effect for Blacks (b 0.77, p .0001) and the negative effect for Asians ( b 0.87, p .0001) both remained strong and highly significant, signifying Black women and Asian men continue to be underrepresented rel- ative to White men and women even when controlling for magazine type. The significant main effects for fitness mag- azines (b 0.53, p .0001) and sexual themed magazines (b 0.46, p .0001) indicate that compared to fashion magazines, targets in fit- ness magazines overall were more likely to be male than female, while targets were more likely to be female in sexual themed magazines. The significant effect of the other ethnicity Sexual themed magazine interaction (b 0. 30, p .023) indicates that individuals who were coded as “other” were more likely to be female in sexual themed magazines relative to fashion magazines. Thus, the tendency for Asian and Black women to be underrepresented did not appear to be limited or qualified by the genre of the magazine. The next analysis examined whether these effects were consistent for magazines marketed to men and to women. Two logistic regression models were conducted, one for magazines tar- geted toward men and one for magazines tar- geted toward women, examining the effect of perceived race, magazine title, and Race Magazine title interaction terms on the per- ceived gender of the target. The results for the magazines targeted toward men are shown in Table 3, and the results for the magazines tar- geted toward women are shown in Table 4, and the overall counts and proportions for maga- zines targeted to men and women are shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. The results indicate that proportionally, Asian men and Black women were represented less in both magazines marketed to men and magazines marketed to women. In magazines marketed to men, the proportion of Black men to Black women was much larger than for Whites (b 1.05, p .0001), while the opposite effect was observed for Asians (b 0.86, p .0003). The significant effects of magazine genre for the magazines marketed to men indicates that there were more men overall depicted in Men’s Health (b 0.73, p .0001), and more women depicted in Maxim relative to
GQ (b 1.21, p .0001). For magazines marketed to men, the significant Asian Men’s Health and Asian Maxim interaction terms indicate that there was an even smaller propor- tion of Asian men depicted in Men’s Health (b 0.91, p .011), and larger proportion of Asian men in Maxim (b 0.62, p .029) relative to the proportion of White men and women in these magazines relative to GQ. The finding that there were more Asian men than women in Maxim, a magazine that tends to portray highly sexualized images of women, is notable, as it suggests that the effects observed with Asian women are not driven solely by the hyper-sexualization of Asian women (e.g., Shi- mizu, 2007). Men categorized as “Other” were marginally more likely to appear in Men’s Health (b 0.71, p .079), and significantly less likely to appear in Maxim (b 0.93, p .0007). For magazines marketed toward women, the pattern was essentially the same as for men’s magazines. The proportion of Asian men to women was lower than the proportion of White men to women (b 1.12, p .0017), and the opposite effect was observed for Blacks (b .46, p .0051), again supporting both hypoth- eses. The significant Asian Women’s Health
Table 3 Logistic Regression of Factors Influencing Depictions in Popular Magazines Marketed to Men Variable b ( SE ) Wald ^2 Perceived race Asian .86 (.24) 13.04 Black 1.06 (.17) 40.08 Other .11 (.24). Magazine Men’s health .74 (.18) 16.10 Maxim 1.23 (.14) 81.79 Interaction terms Asian Men’s health .89 (.36) 6.10 Asian Maxim .58 (.29) 3.92 Black Men’s health .26 (.28). Black Maxim .02 (.20). Other Men’s health .70 (.41) 2.97 † Other Maxim .91 (.28) 10.77 Intercept 1.176 (.11) 105.06 Log likelihood 4308. Note. N 3,983. SE standard error. The dependent variable is the coded gender of the portrayal (male 1). The reference group for race is White, and the reference group for magazine type is fashion magazine (GQ). † (^) p .10. (^) p .05. (^) p .01. (^) p .001.
INVISIBILITY OF ASIAN MEN AND BLACK WOMEN 7
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
resentations. Thus, one consequence of occupy- ing a nonprototypical race and gender identity is being rendered invisible both in terms of cog- nition, as well as in media representations. The results of this study make a substantial contribution to the literature on intersectional invisibility, by showing that belonging to mul- tiple marginalized groups may not be an a priori requirement for intersectionality invisibility to occur; rather, simply being a nonprototypical member of a particular group can lead to invis- ibility. While Asian men do not occupy two marginalized identity categories, their nonpro- totypical gendered race status and mismatch with gendered race stereotypes may contribute to their invisibility, particularly at the cultural level (e.g., Bem, 1981; Johnson et al., 2012; Mok, 1998a). As intersectional invisibility is predicated on the notion that specific groups within a minority category come to embody the prototype for their respective social groups (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008; Schug et al., 2015), invisibility can affect individuals whose identities are deemed as less prototypical, rather than simply those who belong to multiple mar- ginalized or subordinate groups. This work, along with others (e.g., Hall et al., 2015), an- swer calls to use intersectionality theory to doc- ument similarities in the experience of oppres- sion across seemingly disparate groups (Cole, 2009). This is not to imply that that because Asian women and Black men are better represented in print media that these groups do not face dis- crimination. On the contrary, much work has supported the notion that Black men face the brunt of hostile intergroup conflict (e.g., Oliver, 2003; Patton & Snyder-Yuly, 2007; Sidanius & Veniegas, 2000). Other research demonstrates
that Asian women face discrimination, and the content of the discrimination varies depending on whether it is directed toward their gender or their racial categorization (Remedios, Chasteen, & Paek, 2012). It is likely that the types of discrimination faced by people who are deemed prototypical and nonprototypical differ—while previous work has suggested that individuals who more closely match the prototypes of their group may face more discrimination (Eberhardt, Davies, Purdie-Vaughns, & John- son, 2006), nonprototypical groups may also suffer from discrimination in the form of in- visibility (e.g., Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008; Schug et al., 2015; Sesko & Biernat, 2010). The evidence for the invisibility of Asian men is particularly intriguing given that Asians in general are stereotyped in North America as affluent and competent (Butz & Yogeeswaran, 2011; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2007). These stereotypes give rise to the “model minority myth,” a narrative frequently used to negate the notion that Asians suffer from discrimination (Thompson & Kiang, 2010).
Implications for Disparities in Dating and Marriage
These results also have strong implications for other domains where social inequality is observed in a manner consistent with gendered race theory. For instance, a considerable body of evidence suggests that Asian men and Black women face considerable discrimination and in- visibility in the domain of dating and marriage (e.g., Dijkstra, Schwekendiek, & Preenen, 2011; Fryer, 2007; Fujino, 1997; Galinsky et al., 2013; Hwang, 2013; Jacobs & Labov, 2002;
Table 6 Counts and Proportions of Targets Coded as Female and Male for Each Group Appearing in Magazines Targeted to Men
Perceived race
Maxim GQ Men’s health Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Asian 17 58.62 12 41.38 29 2.27 4 25.00 12 75.00 16 1.07 6 46.15 7 53.85 13 1. Black 41 27.52 108 72.48 149 11.69 17 7.83 200 92.17 217 14.52 6 3.87 149 96.13 155 12. White 530 50.72 515 49.28 1,045 82.04 307 25.65 890 74.35 1,197 80.07 181 17.85 833 82.15 1,014 83. Other 36 70.59 15 29.41 51 4.00 8 12.31 57 87.69 65 4.35 2 6.25 30 93.75 32 2. Total 624 48.98 650 51.02 1,274 336 22.47 1,159 77.53 1,495 195 16.06 1,019 83.94 1,
INVISIBILITY OF ASIAN MEN AND BLACK WOMEN 9
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Lee & Fernandez, 1998; Lewis, 2013, 2012; McClintock, 2010; Taylor et al., 2012). For instance, one study of online dating preferences found that only 9% of heterosexual women listed Asian men as a preferred demographic group, while 61% of men listed Asian women (Robnett & Feliciano, 2011). At the same time, only 15% of men listed Black women, relative to 61% of women who listed Black men as a preferred demographic group. These trends are also reflected in research on dating preferences in the laboratory, with one study finding that Asian men and Black women are least success- ful in obtaining dates following a speed dating event (Fisman, Iyengar, Kamenica, & Simon- son, 2008). It is possible that cultural stereotypes created by mass media representations impact the de- gree to which Asian men and Black women are preferred in dating and marriage domains. In- deed, research indicates that repeated exposure to individuals who are represented as attractive can sway the overall desirability of individuals. For instance, simply being exposed to particular novel facial phenotypes can influence the de- gree to which individuals find those traits at- tractive (Principe & Langlois, 2012). Also, re- search on mate copying behavior has shown knowing that an individual is desirable to others can cause people to find that individual (Wayn- forth, 2007), as well as individuals with similar traits (Little, Jones, DeBruine, & Caldwell,
- to be more attractive. Further, exposing people to media portrayals of interracial rela- tionships had been found to increase positive attitudes toward interracial relationships (Liene- mann & Stopp, 2013). Together, these findings suggest that media portrayals may influence who people are willing to date. Thus, it is im- perative that mass media producers pay atten- tion to and work to eliminate discrepancies not only within a single minority category (e.g., race) but also the along gendered race lines (e.g., Asian men vs. Asian women).
Limitations and Future Studies
While the findings of this study strongly sup- port hypotheses derived from the integration gendered race theory and intersectional invisi- bility, there are a number of important consid- erations to keep in mind. First, these data do not suggest a causal link between mass media de-
pictions and gendered race stereotypes. While previous research suggests that stereotypes in general are reinforced through media exposure, future studies should examine whether exposure to mass media contributes to the formation of gendered race stereotypes, and more impor- tantly whether exposure to counterstereotypical examples can alleviate the correspondence be- tween gender and racial stereotypes. Further, the results of this study do not speak to whether mass media depictions influence domains such as interpersonal attraction and willingness to consider specific demographics groups in a dat- ing context; thus, future research should exam- ine whether ways in which demographic groups are represented in mass media influence the extent to which people are willing to consider those groups in dating and marriage contexts. Second, these data do not speak to whether there are any actual group differences in traits associated with inclusion in magazines, such as attractiveness, desirability, femininity, or mas- culinity. In the case of the magazine depictions included in this study, there are certainly Asian men and Black women models whose images could have been included. These data simply show that Asian men and Black women were depicted less frequently and do not suggest dif- ferences in attractiveness, both in terms of ste- reotypes or phenotypes. However, as it is pos- sible that intersubjective perceptions regarding which demographic groups are deemed more attractive overall may influence which groups are more likely to be depicted in mass media, thus, future research should examine whether these effects are also observed in other sources where the attractiveness of targets is less of a focus relative to fitness, fashion, and sexuality- themed magazines. Furthermore this study was conducted in the context of mass media depictions in the United States, and thus, investigations from societies outside of North America and Western Europe should be conducted to investigate whether gen- dered race stereotypes are consistent across cul- tures. Interestingly, similar race and gender im- balances for Black men and women relative to Whites have been found in media depictions in South Africa (Luyt, 2011), and recent research on magazine depictions in Western and Asian cultures have found considerable similarity in portrayals of masculinity across cultures (Tan et al., 2013), as well as cross-cultural similarities
10 SCHUG, ALT, LU, GOSIN, AND FAY
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Colfax, J. D., & Sternberg, S. F. (1972). The perpet- uation of racial stereotypes: Blacks in mass circu- lation magazine advertisements. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 8 –18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ 267971 Courtney, A. E., & Lockeretz, S. W. (1971). A wom- an’s place: An analysis of the roles portrayed by women in magazine advertisements. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 8, 92–95. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2307/ Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersec- tionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–
- http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology, 92, 631– 648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0022-3514.92.4. Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Expo- sure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, 701–721. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bul- letin, 21, 1139 –1150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 01461672952111002 Dijkstra, P. D., Schwekendiek, D., & Preenen, P. T. (2011). Gender-Asymmetry in dating success of Korean adoptees in the west. Sociology Mind, 1, 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/sm.2011. Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., Purdie-Vaughns, V. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2006). Looking deathwor- thy: Perceived stereotypicality of Black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychologi- cal Science, 17, 383–386. http://dx.doi.org/ .1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x Eibach, R. P., & Ehrlinger, J. (2006). “Keep your eyes on the prize”: Reference points and racial differences in assessing progress toward equality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 66–77. http://dx .doi.org/10.1177/ Eibach, R. P., & Keegan, T. (2006). Free at last? Social dominance, loss aversion, and White and Black Americans’ differing assessments of racial progress. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology, 90, 453– 467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0022-3514.90.3. Eng, D. L. (2001). Racial castration: Managing mas- culinity in Asian America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/ 9780822381020 Espiritu, Y. L. (2008). Asian American women and men: Labor, laws, and love. Lanham, MD: Row- man & Littlefield. Farvid, P., & Braun, V. (2006). “Most of us guys are raring to go anytime, anyplace, anywhere”: Male
and female sexuality in Cleo and Cosmo. Sex Roles, 55, 295–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-006-9084- Fisman, R., Iyengar, S. S., Kamenica, E., & Simon- son, I. (2008). Racial preferences in dating. The Review of Economic Studies, 75, 117–132. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-937X.2007.00465.x Frederick, D. A., Fessler, D. M. T., & Haselton, M. G. (2005). Do representations of male muscu- larity differ in men’s and women’s magazines? Body Image, 2, 81– 86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .bodyim.2004.12. Fryberg, S. A., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2008). The psychology of invisibility. In G. Adams, M. Bier- nat, N. R. Branscombe, C. S. Crandall, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Commemorating brown: The social psychology of racism and discrimination (pp. 173–193). Washington, DC: American Psy- chological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 11681- Fryer, R., Jr. (2007). Guess who’s been coming for dinner? Trends in interracial marriage over the 20th century. The Journal of Economic Perspec- tives, 21, 71–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep. .2. Fujino, D. C. (1997). The rates, patterns, and reasons for forming heterosexual interracial dating rela- tionships among Asian Americans. Journal of So- cial and Personal Relationships, 14, 809 – 828. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ Galinsky, A. D., Hall, E. V., & Cuddy, A. J. C. (2013). Gendered races: Implications for interra- cial marriage, leadership selection, and athletic participation. Psychological Science, 24, 498 –506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ Gerbner, G. (1969). Toward “Cultural Indicators”: The analysis of mass mediated public message systems. AV Communication Review, 17, 137–148. Goff, P. A., Thomas, M. A., & Jackson, M. C. (2008). “Ain’t I a woman”: Towards an intersec- tional approach to person perception and group- based harms. Sex Roles, 59, 392– 403. http://dx.doi .org/10.1007/s11199-008-9505- Grady, J. (2007). Advertising images as social indi- cators: Depictions of blacks in LIFE magazine, 1936 –2000. Visual Studies, 22, 211–239. http://dx .doi.org/10.1080/ Hacker, H. M. (1951). Women as a minority group. Social Forces, 30, 60 – 69. http://dx.doi.org/ .2307/ Hall, C. C. (1995). Beauty is in the soul of the beholder: Psychological implications of beauty and African American women. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 1, 125–137. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/1099-9809.1.2. Hall, E. V., Galinsky, A. D., & Phillips, K. W. (2015). Gender profiling: A gendered race perspec- tive on person-position fit. Personality and Social
12 SCHUG, ALT, LU, GOSIN, AND FAY
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology Bulletin, 41, 853– 868. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/ hooks, b. (1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking Black. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. Hovland, R., McMahan, C., Lee, G., Hwang, J.-S., & Kim, J. (2005). Gender role portrayals in American and Korean advertisements. Sex Roles, 53, 887–
- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-8305- Humphrey, R., & Schuman, H. (1984). The portrayal of Blacks in magazine advertisements: 1950 –
- Public Opinion Quarterly, 48, 551–563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ Hwang, W. C. (2013). Who are people willing to date? Ethnic and gender patterns in online dating. Race and Social Problems, 5, 28 – 40. http://dx.doi .org/10.1007/s12552-012-9082- Jacobs, J. A., & Labov, T. G. (2002). Gender differ- entials in intermarriage among sixteen race and ethnic groups. Sociological Forum, 17, 621– 646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A: Johnson, K. L., Freeman, J. B., & Pauker, K. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 116 –131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a Johnson, S. (2007). Promoting easy sex without gen- uine intimacy: Maxim and cosmopolitan cover lines and cover images. In M. L. Galician and D. L. Merskin (Eds.), Critical thinking about sex, love, and romance in the mass media: Media literacy applications (pp. 55–74). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Jones, C., & Shorter-Gooden, K. (2003). Shifting: The double lives of Black women in America. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. Kang, M.-E. (1997). The portrayal of women’s im- ages in magazine advertisements: Goffman’s gen- der analysis revisited. Sex Roles, 37, 979 –996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF Klassen, M. L., Jasper, C. R., & Schwartz, A. M. (1993). Men and women: Images of their relation- ships in magazine advertisements. Journal of Ad- vertising Research, 33, 30 –39. Lee, K.-Y., & Joo, S.-H. (2005). The portrayal of Asian Americans in mainstream magazine ads: An update. Journalism & Mass Communication Quar- terly, 82, 654 – 671. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 107769900508200311 Lee, S. M., & Fernandez, M. (1998). Trends in Asian American racial/ethnic intermarriage: A compari- son of 1980 and 1990 census data. Sociological Perspectives, 41, 323–342. http://dx.doi.org/ .2307/ Lewis, K. (2013). The limits of racial prejudice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- ences of the United States of America, 110, 18814 –18819. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas .
Lewis, M. B. (2012). A facial attractiveness account of gender asymmetries in interracial marriage. PLoS One, 7, e31703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone. Lienemann, B. A., & Stopp, H. T. (2013). The asso- ciation between media exposure of interracial re- lationships and attitudes toward interracial rela- tionships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, E398 –E415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jasp . Little, A. C., Jones, B. C., Debruine, L. M., & Caldwell, C. A. (2011). Social learning and human mate preferences: A potential mechanism for gen- erating and maintaining between-population diver- sity in attraction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences, 366, 366 –375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/ rstb.2010. Luyt, R. (2011). Representation of gender in South African television advertising: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 65, 356 –370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-011-0027- Mastro, D. E., & Stern, S. R. (2003). Representations of race in television commercials: A content anal- ysis of prime-time advertising. Journal of Broad- casting & Electronic Media, 47, 638 – 647. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4704_ McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectional- ity. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and So- ciety, 30, 1771–1800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ 426800 McClintock, E. A. (2010). When does race matter? Race, sex, and dating at an elite university. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72, 45–72. http://dx .doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00683.x Millard, J. E., & Grant, P. R. (2006). The stereotypes of Black and White women in fashion magazine photographs: The pose of the model and the im- pression she creates. Sex Roles, 54, 659 – 673. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9032- Mok, T. A. (1998a). Getting the message: Media images and stereotypes and their effect on Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 4, 185–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809. .3. Mok, T. A. (1998b). Asian Americans and standards of attractiveness: What’s in the eye of the be- holder? Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 4, 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.4.1. Neuendorf, K. A. (2011). Content analysis—A meth- odological primer for gender research. Sex Roles, 64, 276 –289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199- 010-9893- Oliver, M. B. (2003). African American men as “criminal and dangerous”: Implications of media portrayals of crime on the “criminalization” of African American men. Journal of African Amer-
INVISIBILITY OF ASIAN MEN AND BLACK WOMEN 13
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
crossroads. Sex Roles, 68, 803– 810. http://dx.doi .org/10.1007/s11199-013-0281- Waynforth, D. (2007). Mate choice copying in hu- mans. Human Nature, 18, 264 –271. http://dx.doi .org/10.1007/s12110-007-9004- Weitz, R., & Gordon, L. (1993). Images of Black women among anglo college students. Sex Roles, 28, 19 –34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF West, C. M. (1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their im- plications for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: The- ory, Research, and Practice, 32, 458 – 466. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.32.3. Wong, Y. J., Owen, J., Tran, K. K., Collins, D. L., & Higgins, C. E. (2012). Asian American male col- lege students’ perceptions of people’s stereotypes about Asian American men. Psychology of Men
and Masculinity, 13, 75– 88. http://dx.doi.org/ .1037/a Yuen, N. W., Chin, C., Deo, M., Lee, J., & Milman, N. (2005). Asian Pacific Americans in prime time: Lights, camera and little action. Washington, DC: The National Asian Pacific American Legal Con- sortium. Zhang, Q. (2010). Asian Americans beyond the model minority stereotype: The nerdy and the left out. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 3, 20 –37. http://dx.doi.org/ .1080/
Received October 27, 2014 Revision received July 11, 2015 Accepted July 16, 2015
INVISIBILITY OF ASIAN MEN AND BLACK WOMEN 15
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
