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Reviewer for Finals - Introduction to Psychology, Study notes of Introduction to Psychology

Philippine Women's University (PWU)Introduction to Psychology

Summary of topics discussed in Introduction to Psychology for Finals Examination.

Typology: Study notes

2021/2022

Uploaded on 02/02/2023

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R E V I E W E R

Inodon  Pyol

Dreams

- The meaning of dreams varies across dierent cultures and periods of time.

Sigmund Freud

- German psychiatrist

- had become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the

unconscious.

- By analyzing dreams, He thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable

insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives.

-Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams.

●Manifest content

- the actual content, or storyline, of a dream.

●Latent content

- refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.

- For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might

have argued that this represents the woman’s fear of sexual intimacy, with the

snake serving as a symbol of a man’s penis.

Carl Jung

- The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective

unconscious.

- Collective unconscious

- is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone.

- certain symbols in dreams reected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar

for all people regardless of culture or location.

Rosalind Cartwright

- The sleep and dreaming researcher

- believes that dreams simply reect life events that are important to the dreamer.

- Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwright’s ideas about dreaming have found empirical support.

- For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce

were asked several times over a ve month period to report the degree to which their former

spouses were on their minds. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to

provide a detailed account of their dream content.

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R E V I E W E R

Inodon Pyol

Dreams

The meaning of dreams varies across dierent cultures and periods of time. Sigmund Freud
German psychiatrist
had become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious.
By analyzing dreams, He thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives.
Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. ● Manifest content
the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. ● Latent content
refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.
For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the woman’s fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a man’s penis. Carl Jung
The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious.
Collective unconscious
is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone.
certain symbols in dreams reected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. Rosalind Cartwright
The sleep and dreaming researcher
believes that dreams simply reect life events that are important to the dreamer.
Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwright’s ideas about dreaming have found empirical support.
For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a ve month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content.

There was a signicant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006).
Pag laging iniisip ang isang bagay, mas possible na mag appear siya sa dreams. Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may eectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. Recently, neuroscientists have also become interested in understanding why we dream. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. Lucid dreams
are dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state.
In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dream’s content (LaBerge, 1990). What does it mean when we dream?
Dreams are stories and images that our minds create while we sleep. They can be entertaining, fun, romantic, disturbing, frightening, and sometimes bizarre. They are an enduring source of mystery for scientists and psychological doctors. Why do dreams occur? What causes them? Can we control them? What do they mean? ● We may not remember dreaming, but everyone is thought to dream between 3 and 6 times per night ● It is thought that each dream lasts between 5 to 20 minutes. ● Around 95 percent of dreams are forgotten by the time a person gets out of bed. ● Dreaming can help you learn and develop long-term memories. ● Blind people dream more with other sensory components compared with sighted people. Why Do We Dream? There are several theories about why we dream. Are dreams merely part of the sleep cycle, or do they serve some other purpose? Possible explanations include: ● Representing unconscious desires and wishes ● Interpreting random signals from the brain and body during sleep ● Consolidating and processing information

Theories on Dreaming While the Freudian theory of dreaming may be the most well known, and Cartwright’s suggestions on dreaming the most plausible, there are several other theories about the purpose of dreaming. The threat-simulation theory

suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defense mechanism.
Dreams are thought to provide an evolutionary advantage because of their capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events.
This process enhances the neurocognitive mechanisms required for ecient threat perception and avoidance. The expectation-fulllment theory
posits that dreaming serves to discharge emotional arousals (however minor) that haven’t been expressed during the day.
This practice frees up space in the brain to deal with the emotional arousals of the next day and allows instinctive urges to stay intact.
In eect, the expectation is fullled (the action is “completed”) in a metaphorical form so that a false memory is not created.
This theory explains why dreams are usually forgotten immediately afterwards. The activation-synthesis theory
One prominent neurobiological theory of dreaming
states that dreams don’t actually mean anything.
They are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories.
The theory posits that humans construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of the nonsensical.
However, given the vast documentation of the realistic aspects of human dreaming, as well as indirect experimental evidence that other mammals such as cats also dream, evolutionary psychologists have theorized that dreaming does indeed serve a purpose. The continual-activation theory
proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis.
Dreaming and REM sleep are simultaneously controlled by dierent brain mechanisms.
The hypothesis states that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer data from short-term memory to long-term memory through a process called consolidation.
However, there is not much evidence to back this up.
NREM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory).
REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).

The underlying assumption of continual-activation theory is that, during REM sleep, the unconscious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory.
Meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain descends to a very low level as the inputs from the senses are basically disconnected.
This triggers the “continual-activation” mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to ow through to the conscious part of the brain. Other Theories About Why We Dream Many other theories have been suggested to account for why we dream. ● One theory contends that dreams are the result of our brains trying to interpret external stimuli (such as a dog's bark, music, or a baby's cry) during sleep. ● Another theory uses a computer metaphor to account for dreams, noting that dreams serve to "clean up" clutter from the mind, refreshing the brain for the next day. ● The reverse-learning theory
suggests that we dream to forget. Our brains have thousands of neural connections between memories—too many to remember them all—and that dreaming is part of "pruning" those connections. ● The continual-activation theory
We dream to keep the brain active while we sleep, in order to keep it functioning properly. Lucid Dreaming
relatively rare dreams where the dreamer has awareness of being in their dream and often has some control over the dream content.
Research indicates that around 50% of people recall having had at least one lucid dream in their lifetime and just over 10% report having them two or more times per month.
It is unknown why certain people experience lucid dreams more frequently than others. While experts are unclear as to why or how lucid dreaming occurs, preliminary research signals that the prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain play a signicant role. Stress Dreams
Stressful experiences tend to show up with great frequency in our dreams. Stress dreams may be described as sad, scary, and a nightmare.
Experts do not fully understand how or why specic stressful content ends up in our dreams, but many point to a variety of theories, including the continuity hypothesis, adaptive strategy, and emotional regulation dream theories to explain these occurrences.
Stress dreams and mental health seem to go hand-in-hand. - Daily stress shows up in dreams:

Breathing becomes more rapid, irregular, and shallow, eyes jerk rapidly in various directions, and limb muscles become temporarily paralyzed.
Heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, and males develop penile erections.
When people awaken during REM sleep, they often describe bizarre and illogical tales.
These are dreams. This stage accounts for 20 to 25 percent of total sleep time. Dream lag
when the images, experiences, or people that emerge in dreams are images, experiences, or people you have seen recently, perhaps the previous day or a week before.
The idea is that certain types of experiences take a week to become encoded into long-term memory, and some of the images from the consolidation process will appear in a dream.
Events experienced while awake are said to feature in 1 to 2 percent of dream reports, although 65 percent of dream reports reect aspects of recent waking life experiences. Memory types and dreaming Two types of memory can form the basis of a dream. ● autobiographical memories
or long-lasting memories about the self ● episodic memories
which are memories about specic episodes or events Forgetting dreams
Studies of brain activity suggest that most people over the age of 10 years dream between 4 and 6 times each night, but some people rarely remember dreaming.
It is often said that 5 minutes after a dream, people have forgotten 50 percent of its content, increasing to 90 percent another 5 minutes later.
Most dreams are entirely forgotten by the time someone wakes up, but it is not known precisely why dreams are so hard to remember. Steps that may help improve dream recall, include: ● waking up naturally and not with an alarm ● focusing on the dream as much as possible upon waking ● writing down as much about the dream as possible upon waking ● making recording dreams a routine Who remembers their dreams?
There are factors that can potentially inuence who remembers their dreams, how much of the dream remains intact, and how vivid it is. ● Age:
Over time, a person is likely to experience changes in sleep timing, structure, and electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. Can dreams predict the future?

Some dreams may seem to predict future events.
Some researchers claim to have evidence that this is possible, but there is not enough evidence to prove it.
Most often, this seems to be due to coincidence, a false memory, or the unconscious mind connecting together known information.
Dreams may help people learn more about their feelings, beliefs, and values. Images and symbols that appear in dreams will have meanings and connections that are specic to each person.
People looking to make sense of their dreams should think about what each part of the dreams mean to them as an individual. Sleep Problems and Disorders Sleep disorder
is a condition that frequently impacts your ability to get enough quality sleep.
Many of us occasionally experience diculties sleeping.
Usually it’s due to stress, travel, illness, or other temporary interruptions to your normal routine.
However, if you regularly have problems getting to sleep at night, wake up feeling exhausted, or feel sleepy during the day, you may be suering from a sleep disorder.
They can take a serious toll on your mental and physical health, including your mood, energy, and ability to handle stress.
Ignoring sleep problems and disorders can lead to weight gain, car accidents, impaired job performance, memory problems, and strained relationships.
If you want to feel your best, stay healthy, and perform up to your potential, quality sleep is a necessity, not a luxury.
Frequently having trouble sleeping can be a frustrating and debilitating experience.
You sleep badly at night, which leaves you feeling dead-tired in the morning and whatever energy you have quickly drains throughout the day.
But then, no matter how exhausted you feel at night, you still have trouble sleeping.
And so the cycle begins again.
But you don’t have to live with a sleeping problem.
There are many things you can do to identify the underlying causes of your sleep disorder and improve your sleep, health, and quality of life. Types of common sleep disorders Insomnia
inability to get to sleep or sleep well at night, can be caused by stress, jet lag, a health condition, the medications you take, or even the amount of coee you drink.

At night, when there is less light, your brain triggers the release of melatonin, a hormone that makes you sleepy.
When the sun comes up in the morning, the brain tells the body that it’s time to wake up.
When your circadian rhythms are disrupted or thrown o, you may feel groggy, disoriented, and sleepy at inconvenient times.
Circadian rhythms have been linked to a variety of sleeping problems and sleep disorders, as well as depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal aective disorder (the winter blues). Shift work sleep disorder
Shift work sleep disorder occurs when your work schedule and your biological clock are out of sync.
In our 24-hour society, many people have to work night shifts, early morning shifts, or rotating shifts.
These schedules force you to work when your body is telling you to go to sleep, and sleep when your body is signaling you to wake.
While some people adjust better than others to the demands of shift work, most shift workers get less quality sleep than their daytime counterparts.
As a result of sleep deprivation, you may struggle with sleepiness and mental lethargy on the job.
This cuts into your productivity and puts you at risk of injury. Delayed sleep phase disorder
Delayed sleep phase disorder is a condition where your biological clock is signicantly delayed.
As a result, you go to sleep and wake up much later than other people.
This is more than just a preference for staying up late or being a night owl, but rather a disorder that makes it dicult for you to keep normal hours—to make it to morning classes, get the kids to school on time, or keep a 9-to-5 job.
People with delayed sleep phase disorder are unable to get to sleep earlier than 2 to 6 a.m., no matter how hard they try.

When allowed to keep their own hours (such as during a school break or vacation), they fall into a regular sleep schedule.
Delayed sleep phase disorder is most common in teenagers, and many teens will eventually grow out of it.
For those who continue to struggle with a biological clock that is out of sync, treatments such as light therapy and chronotherapy can help. Jet lag
Jet lag is a temporary disruption in circadian rhythms that occurs when you travel across time zones.
Symptoms include daytime sleepiness, fatigue, headaches, stomach problems, and insomnia.
Symptoms are more pronounced the longer the ight and ying east tends to cause worse jet lag than ying west.
In general, it usually takes one day per time zone crossed to adjust to the local time. So, if you ew from Los Angeles to New York, crossing three time zones, your jet lag should be gone within three days. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. Parasomnias
A parasomnia is one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role.
occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Sleepwalking
Somnambulism

It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland).
As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modied to make it a safer place for those suering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). Other Parasomnias ● A person with restless leg syndrome has uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep.
This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to diculty in falling or staying asleep. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000).
There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). ● Night terrors result in a sense of panic in the suerer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000).
Although individuals suering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineective.
Typically, individuals suering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time.
Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini, Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011).
Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Insomnia

While parasomnias are disorders related to the various stages of sleep, other sleep disorders, such as insomnia, are related to sleep in general. Insomnia is a consistent diculty in falling or staying asleep, and is the most common of the sleep disorders.
Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep.
In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to nd that they have diculty getting back to sleep.
As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one month’s time (Roth, 2007).
It is not uncommon for people suering from insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their inability to fall asleep.
This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression.
There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines.
Not surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several dierent approaches. People who suer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day.
Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time.
Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it aects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment.
Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help suerers of insomnia.

Sexual Dysfunctions and paraphilia Paraphilia

Not normal
More on sexual intercourse
If you cannot function well because of sexual intercourse ang laging iniisip
Emotional disorder
Atleast 6 months - Voyeurism
- Watching an unsuspecting/non-consenting individual who is either nude, disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity - Exhibitionism
- Exposing one’s own genitals to an unsuspecting person
- satisfaction - Frotteurism
Satisfaction in touching/rubbing against a non-consenting person
Sexual Masochism
- sinasaktan
Sexual sadism
- nanakit
Pedophilia
- Engage in sexual activity w/ a child 13 yrs old and younger - Fetishism
- Sexual fascination w/ non-living objects or highly specic body parts
- Somnophilia
  - Arousal by a person who is unconscious
- Urophilia - Transvestism
- Cross-dressing that is sexually arousing and interferes w/ functioning
- Straight guys - Autogynephilia
- Men become arouse thinking/visualizing himself as a woman - Nycrophillia(?)
- Sexual intercourse to dead bodies - Vysdiality(rape to animals)? Or zoopedia?
- Sexual intercourse to animals Sexual Dysfunctions

Desire disorders
Arousal disorders
Orgasms disorders
Pain disorders Dysfunctions Dysfunctions of sexual desire Hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual aversion disorder Little or no sexual drive or interest Dysfunctions of sexual arousal Female sexual arousal disorder Inability to achieve or maintain an erection (formerly known as impotence) No responsiveness to erotic Dysfunctions of Orgasm Premature ejaculation Male orgasmic disorder Female orgasmic disorder Unsatisfactorily brief period between the beginning of sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation. Inability to ejaculate during intercourse (also known as retarded ejaculation) Diculty in achieving organism, either manually or during sexual intercourse Sexual pain disorder Vaginismus Dyspareunia Involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse. Painful coitus; may have either an organic or psychological basis If ilang years na nag sesexual intercourse, and masakit pa din, its not normal

Reviewer for Finals - Introduction to Psychology, Study notes of Introduction to Psychology

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