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Qualitative Research Methods: Analyzing Documents and Conducting Interviews, Exams of Nursing

University of Cambridge Nursing

An overview of various qualitative research methods, including the analysis of documents and the conduct of interviews. It covers topics such as the challenges of field observations, the importance of values, attitudes, and beliefs, the different types of content analysis (quantitative and qualitative), the various types of documents that can be analyzed, and the key considerations in conducting interviews (e.g., sampling, note-taking, types of interviews). The document also delves into the nuances of analyzing artifacts, symbolism, and evocation, as well as the different approaches to interviewing (individual interviews and focus groups). Overall, this document offers a comprehensive understanding of the qualitative research toolkit, equipping researchers with the knowledge and strategies to effectively gather and analyze rich, in-depth data.

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 10/08/2024

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SPMA 3P17

how do we collect and analyze qualitative data? - Answer -participant observation

- analyzing field sites

- interested in the dynamics of human interactions

- where interviewing is not possible

- or together with interviewing and/or documents

method - Answer -how you go about doing something

eg. participant observation - being in the field, observing, taking down notes, recording natural life

methodology - Answer -why you are going about it in a particular way

- overarching framework

eg. ethnography - research in the setting observing as things happen to understand human life in a

particular setting

characteristics of participant observation - Answer -- based on "naturalism"

- social context (setting) is of multiple importance

- direct observation and interaction

- sufficient time

- use of a variety of data sources

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SPMA 3P

how do we collect and analyze qualitative data? - Answer -participant observation

analyzing field sites
interested in the dynamics of human interactions
where interviewing is not possible
or together with interviewing and/or documents method - Answer -how you go about doing something eg. participant observation - being in the field, observing, taking down notes, recording natural life methodology - Answer -why you are going about it in a particular way
overarching framework eg. ethnography - research in the setting observing as things happen to understand human life in a particular setting characteristics of participant observation - Answer -- based on "naturalism"
social context (setting) is of multiple importance
direct observation and interaction
sufficient time
use of a variety of data sources

volume of recorded data
evolving character of the study
researcher is the primary data collection instrument
focus on both explicit and tactic knowledge explicit knowledge - Answer -exactly what is said, heard, and seen tactic knowledge - Answer -the unspoken, information that is harder to get at assumptions of participant observation - Answer -- a researcher can are in the participants world
a researcher can directly participate in the participants world
by participating in the participants world, a researcher can understand the participants world from his/her unique perspective role of the observer - Answer -- covert role
complete role
active role
peripheral role peripheral role - Answer -maintains the fly on the wall stance, basically a witness, documents what they see, an invisible role active role - Answer -researcher is actively involved in whatever field research they're in complete role - Answer -completely emerged in the study, overt, participant in the activity covert role - Answer -access to hiden facets of social life (drug dealing), can be risky, harder to get ethical clearance portrayal of the purpose of the research to others - Answer -false explanation

short temp memory triggers
words or phrases are then used to prompt memory for later
participant quotes
analytic jottings - as you're hearing something you start to think of the meaning direct observation notes - Answer -- written directly after the jotted notes
what people are saying researcher inference notes - Answer -researchers interpretations on what he/she thinks could be going on analytic notes - Answer -- where you start putting all the big puzzle pieces together
higher order of thinking personal notes - Answer -personal feelings and emotional reactions that may be experienced you just arrived now what? - Answer -- get oriented
locate subgroups and stars
observe and listen
record key words and phrases while in the field
write notes before sharing them with others
central component of ethnographic research is the ethnographic account
your notes should help you visualize the moment a year later avoid summary statements
use maps, diagrams, or a 'ground plan' what to observe - Answer -- physical setting
social environment
planned activities, programs, events

informal interactions and unplanned activities
verbal communication/language of the people
nonverbal communication
what does NOT happen reflexivity - Answer -take into account your (researchers) experiences and status (gender, age, class, profession, sexuality, history, etc.) and how they affect interactions challenges to field observations - Answer -minimize participant reactivity
your goal is to get people to forget you're there doing research hawthorne effect
people act differently when they know they're being studied what reduces reactivity - Answer -- time
displaying no symbolic detachment
personalized relationships issues leaving the field - Answer -- process of disengaging and exiting the field
determining responsibilities to members/participants values - Answer -the importance someone attributes to something/someone attitudes - Answer -the way someone thinks or feels about it beliefs - Answer -part of a system of interrelated values and attitudes plus your own personal knowledge value system - Answer -combine and overlap values, attitudes, and beliefs

researchers can reflect on the documents targeted readership and how its author writes with a particular audience in mind analyzing identity - Answer -- reflect on the possible identity of the documents
who is the author?
what kind of document is it?
who created the document?
how does the document fit into a larger context?
who is the intended audience?
how did the document affect the flow of events? problems with autobiographies - Answer -- athlete presents themselves in a favourable light
axes to grind
excuses
long term recall - accuracy? "the older I get the better I was" artifact - Answer -- any object made by humans (handmade or manufactured) or natural object that can beg touched and handled
things that we use in our daily routines and rituals
unobtrusive measures: residual traces or artifact evidence of previous human presence and activity analyzing belonging - Answer -- each social space has a specific place where thing in it generally belongs
this is where the analytical skill sets of discerning unity and relationships come into play
spaces most often contain a logic - an organization and management - to the items within them
analyzing their purpose may bring an understanding of their perceived value and especially the attitudes and beliefs held toward them analyzing symbolism - Answer -- symbols are human constructions and condensed attributions of specific associations, memories and meaning
anthropologists explore the symbolism of and in a cultures artifacts

analyzing symbolism enables discernment of what an object presents and represents to its creators, owners and/or viewers
people can also attribute specific symbolic significance and meaning to an artifact that is not readily observable in the object analyzing evocation - Answer -- what is first evoked within them as they look at an object or image
subjective first impressions are documented in writing to note their initial interpretive "read"
for visual images that supplement or accompany primarily narrative texts, open ended interpretations of photographs and illustrations are most appropriate interviewing is - Answer -- most common qualitative data gathering technique
the way to get rich, detailed data about how people perceive their worlds
conversations with a purpose interview locations - Answer -- convenient - for the participant
appropriate - how does the physical space affect the participant or interview?
be wary of participants requests if you think that it will limit their ability to tell their story note taking - Answer -hand written notes
less intrusive
can be distracting to you and the participant
difficult to do without experience audio-recorder
more intrusive
risk of equipment failure
easier to focus on the interview
more complete record
need to transcribe it all

produce large amounts of data, often much more than a focus group
in some interviews, appropriate for interviewer to offer opinions and substantive comments focus groups - Answer -- involves a small group of participants and facilitator/moderator and often a recorder 5-7 people is ideal size for focus group
allows researchers to observe interactions among participants about a discussion topic and explore these interactions
often does not allow for detailed in depth investigations of information
dynamic interactions among participants often leads to spontaneous responses by other participants
requires less time, particularly appropriate if need to collect data in a short period of time
data are group data and reflect the collective notions shared and negotiated by the group
produces sustainability less data than the individual interview
not appropriate fir moderator to offer opinions and substantive comments - interactions should be focused on the participants types of interviews - Answer -- surveys and structured interviews
semi-structured interviews
unstructured interviews surveys and structures interview - Answer -- highly structured or close ended
generally not qualitative interviews
most researcher dominated semi-structured interviews - Answer -- most commonly used in qualitative interviewing
list of questions before interview
offer latitude for participant to lead the conversation
continue the flow of conversation
in-interview analysis
have to be active listeners

unstructured interviews - Answer -- no list of questions

really informal conversation
beyond the research question there no structure
appropriate when we know little information or background
participant has the power research question - Answer -formulate what you need to understand interview question - Answer -what you ask the people in order to gain understanding types of interview questions - Answer -- warm up/descriptive question
structural
contrast questions
questions of a more sensitive nature warm up/descriptive questions - Answer -- seeking out initial information
trying to build a solid relationship
information gathering
the "grand tour" question
early in the interview structural questions - Answer -- information related to developing concepts
who do you get to the game? who do you go with? what was the highest point in your athletic career?
middle of the interview contrast questions - Answer -- how is this experience different than this experience?
compare and contrast their experiences
middle to end of interview

common interview mistakes - Answer -- close ended questions

ambiguous language
presupposition questions
avoid dichotomous questions
double barrelled questions
leading or value-laden questions
affectively worded questions
complex questions
poor sequencing of questions nature of research-participant relationship depends on 2 factors - Answer -- the quality of your interactions to support your research
the quality of your self awareness of the potential effects of self on your research rapport - Answer -- the character of effective field relationships
distance-reducing, anxiety-quieting, trust-building mechanisms
a necessary but not sufficient condition for obtaining good data
begins even before the interview factors bearing on rapport - Answer -- appearance
age, gender, class, and race
some ethical grey areas if you go totally against your own beliefs
can place limitations on the researchers interactions and expressions subjectivity - Answer -the quality of your self awareness go the potential effects of self on your research subjectivity at the stage of research design - Answer -- develop an awareness of the baggage we carry into the inquiry

reflect on how your life intersects with your research topic
prepare an autobiographical statement before entering into research subjectivity in the research process - Answer -- pay attention to your emotional reactions
keep a record of those feelings
make note of your emotional reactions to specific participant response
think about why you had those reactions how does subjectivity enhance the research process - Answer -- monitoring subjectivity does not mean controlling subjectivity
subjectivity is inescapable transcription - Answer -- researchers analyze data as they are spoken during the interviews
they also analyze when transcribing
insights that come to mind
write jottings or analytic memos while transcribing coding - Answer -- word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence- capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data
portion of data can be a single word, 5 min section, image, film, can be anything
researcher-generated contract that symbolizes or "translates" data symbolizing - Answer -the condensation of a datum into a richer, more compact form of meaning in vivo coding - Answer -- utilizes the participants own language as a symbol system for qualitative data analysis
a good method to first learn how to code because it requires that researchers scrutinize data closely and pay attention to literally every word the participant says

ontology - Answer -refers to the nature of being

our minds have the capacity to not just experience life but to wonder what it is and what it all means epistemology - Answer -refers to ways of knowing
use different and unique lenses, filters and angles
reflection on multiple identities you bring to the research enterprise constructivism - Answer -refer to the cumulative processes of knowledge building within our minds
we consider social reality subjective, meaning that each individual person understands the world differently
a constructivists ontological premise is that knowledge does not exist "out there", independently of human beings interpretivist goal - Answer -to understand how people make sense of and create meaning in their world (want to learn about complexity of life) positivist goal - Answer -to find cause and effect relationships; to be able to predict actions; to find generalizable relationships when to use QR design - Answer -- when little is known about the topic
when he emphasis of the study is on meaning or subjective experiences different styles of QR by focus - Answer -- a portrait (biography)(ethnography)
a concept or phenomenon (phenomenology)
a case (case study)
a theory (grounded theory) biography/life history - Answer -- goal: to create a descriptive portrait of the life of a single individual
focus: someone whom little is known about their lives or their lives illuminate a particular issue
data analysis: very descriptive and stay close to the participants own words

report: the reconstruction of life experiences and participant observations
key element: situate individual within a social context grounded theory - Answer -- goal: to generate substantive theory or model which helps to explain a phenomenon, a construct, a process or an action
focus: development of grounded concepts, refinement of those concepts and relationships between them
data collection: primarily interviews; participants observation may also be used
data analysis: researchers follow systematic coding procedures
report: main components of the theory and often include a visual/theoretical model
key element: data collection and analysis follow a zig zag pattern with the goal of refining the theory ethnography - Answer -- goal: understand the behaviours of a culture sharing group
focus: understanding cultures and the naturally occurring processes within a culture and how people interact within that culture
data collection: participant observation, formal and informal interviews, sometimes artifacts/documents examined
data analysis: making sense of what the researcher saw and heard
report: detailed description of the cultural behaviour of a group as well as an explanation of how the cultures belief systems/norms affects members behaviours
key element: requires considerable time in the field phenomenology - Answer -- goal: to provide a better understanding of a phenomenon
focus: understanding a concept, phenomenon or experience
pre investigation: "bracketing" or preconceived ideas about the phenomenon
data collection: primarily intensive, exploratory, multiple interviews with the same person
data analysis: reducing the individual experiences into an essential structure of the experience
report: narrative or story that describes in detail the "essence" using the voices of the participants
key element: understanding the "lived experience" as well as the meanings people ascribe to it

utility - Answer -- the usefulness and pragmatic value of research for other applications

part of rationale
statements related to practitioners
application of research to improve practice in the field reviewing the literature - Answer -- never enter research as a blank slate
how it may go beyond the existing theories
existing studies tell us the area that is known and what needs more focus
can learn what went wring with others studies
what directions for future research that they recommend
verify that you have chosen a justifiable and valuable topic
use relevant literature to help find focus
informing your research design and interview questions
reviewing literature is an ongoing process
cast a wide net central research question - Answer -the centre of a web that connects related questions related research questions - Answer -further sharpen sense of what we are looking for
3-5 questions data collection methods - Answer -- fieldworks and field notes
interviews and transcripts
documents
artifacts
visual materials
analytic memos
other

possible analytic outcomes - Answer -- major categories or concepts -primary themes

assertions
narratives
figures
statistics
theory
arts based forms presentation modes - Answer -the presentation format for research should be the one(s) that best represent the genre and findings of the investigation, and the one(s) that will target the most receptive readerships/audiences timeline design - Answer -- 15% to 20% of available time is spent on research design and preparation
50% to 60% for fieldwork and data analysis
20% to 25% for the final writing stage why was the research risk benefit scale introduced? - Answer -- at one time, no "scale" was necessary
researchers had total authority
subjects or participants had no personal rights involved in the research
1940-80 some blatantly unethical studies
1940s Nazi - medical experiments - placed prisoners in freezing water to see how long they took them to die
1960s Tuskeegee - syphillis study - took poor uneducated black men in Alabama and knew they had syphillis buy intentionally didnt treat them to see how physical disabilities took form
1970s Miligram - obedience study - occurred at Yale university wanted to replicate the idea of social pressure to potential death types of ethical issues - Answer -- issues related to the reporting the results

Qualitative Research Methods: Analyzing Documents and Conducting Interviews, Exams of Nursing

Often downloaded together

Related documents

Partial preview of the text

Download Qualitative Research Methods: Analyzing Documents and Conducting Interviews and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

SPMA 3P