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Psych Final Exam COHN with Complete
Solutions
Which level of processing results in longer-lasting memory codes - ANS-Semantic (what is the meaning of a word or material) A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli is called - ANS-Iconic our tendency to judge the likelihood of an event on the basis of how readily we can remember - ANS-Availability heuristic research findings suggest that iconic memory lasts for approximately - ANS-1/2 second by encouraging people to imagine their home being destroyed by fire insurance agents are especially successful at selling large homeowners policies the agents are relying on the impact of - ANS-Availability heuristic for the early version of the stanford binet test iq was defined as - ANS-mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. words, events, places, and emotions that trigger our memory of the past are called - ANS-Retrieval cues chunking refers to - ANS-the organization of information into meaningful units A mnemonic device is a - ANS-Memory aid Which of the following questions about the word depressed would best prepare you to correctly remember tomorrow that you had seen the word on today's test? - ANS-How well does the word describe you? Studies by George Miller and other investigators suggest that short-term memory can hold approximately - ANS-7 pieces of info (plus or minus 2) Echoic memory refers to - ANS-a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Ebbinghaus forgetting curve suggests that - ANS-The course for forgetting new material is initially rapid and then levels off over time Which brain structure is involved in the formation of explicit memories - ANS- Hippocampus
the tendency to think of objects only in terms of its typical use - ANS-Functional fixedness Consumers respond more positively to ground beef advertised as "75 percent lean" than to ground beef described as "25 percent fat." This illustrates that consumer reactions are influenced by: - ANS-Framing After being asked to remember three consonants, participants in a study by Peterson and Peterson counted aloud backward by threes in order to prevent: - ANS-Rehearsal What was zimbardo studying - ANS-The impact of social roles in behavior Heuristic - ANS-Mental shortcut that can speed up problem solving how long does echoic memory last - ANS-2-4 secs which brain structure is involved in the formation of emotional memories - ANS- Amygdala Why did Ebbinghaus use nonsense syllables (CVC's) in his initial experiments? - ANS- Nonsense syllables represent meaningless material and would be uncontaminated by previous learning Many individuals fail to remember where the elements are located on a penny what is this called - ANS-Encoding failure Konrad Lorenz discovered that baby ducklings 'bonded' to him if he was the first moving object they encountered. This phenomenon is called: - ANS-Imprinting You lightly touch a newborn baby's check and the baby turns in the direction of the stimulation and opens its mouth. This reflex is called: - ANS-Rooting reflex I want to study the ability of newborns to distinguish the sounds "p" and "b". I let a group of newborn infants suck on a pacifier which records their sucking behavior. When exposed to the sound "p" infants begin to suck quickly but soon return to their baseline sucking behavior. This is called: - ANS-Habituation Karen Wynn investigated the ability of infants to add and subtract. What procedure did she use to determine if babies display some primitive understanding of addition and subtraction? - ANS-Violation of expectation Piaget's basic test for object permanence involves - ANS-showing a baby an interesting toy and then covering it with a cloth What is an example of imprinting - ANS-Baby duckling following the first object it sees
The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to - ANS-Underestimate the impact of situational factors in controlling the behavior of other people and the tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional (personality) factors The prison guards in Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Study often acted cruelly. Who served as participants in his study? - ANS-People from Palo Alto (Stanford area) they were randomly assigned to play the guard or the prisoner Most people are likely to be surprised by the results of Milgram's initial obedience experiment because - ANS-The 'teachers' were more obedient than most people would predict Psychology - ANS-Involves the study of people What we know is learned from informal observation and intuition, what we know is subject to bias 3 Fields of Psychology - ANS--Experimental -Clinical -Applied Hypothesis - ANS-Informal definition- an educated guess about how something works Formal definition- a tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables (This is a statement, not a question and must be testable) Scientific Method - ANS-Hypothesis, Data collection, Data analyisis, Replication Random Assignment - ANS-Assigning participants to groups by chance which reduces bias, they all have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of groups in the study (ex. choosing heads or tails and flipping a coin) Random Selection - ANS-Subjects are selected randomly from a larger group so that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study Variable - ANS-Any phenomenon or stimulus that can vary in value Independent Variable - ANS-Experimental factor that is manipulated; the treatment itself (ex. TV time, 15 minutes) Dependent Variable - ANS-The behavior that is measured; the factor that might be affected by changes in the independent variable (ex. Children's behavior) Confounding Variable - ANS-A variable whose uncontrolled presence serves to confound your results and possibly leads to false conclusions
Operational Definition - ANS-Specifies the operations and procedures that are used to define the independent and dependent variables Experimental Condition - ANS-Condition that exposes subjects to one version of the independent variable Control Condition - ANS-Condition identical to the experimental one; except the independent variable has a different value like zero Experimental Group - ANS-The group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions. including the independent variable Control Group - ANS-In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. What is pseudoscience? - ANS-A set or theories, assumptions, and methods erroneously regarded as scientific Why is pseudoscience relevant to psychology? - ANS-It shows us that someone else can replicate a result What did Professor Cohn give as an example of pseudoscience? - ANS-Haans and the Counting Horse Who was Phineas Gage and why is he important? Where were his injury located? - ANS-He was injured on the railroad with explosives, it was the earliest documentation of a severe brain injury. The injury was located on his left frontal lobe and his personality changed. He was impulsive, angry, and unreliable What is synesthesia? What are 3 examples? - ANS-Blending of two or more senses -Hearing notes and seeing color -Seeing numbers and color
- Touch and taste What is the frontal lobe responsible for? - ANS-Decision making, rationality/ reasoning, impulse control. It is the executive control What is phrenology? Why is it relevant to psychology? - ANS-It is a pseudoscience where they would study the head to determine personality. It is one of the earliest attempts at organizing parts of the brain How many neurons are present in a single human brain? - ANS-About 100 billion Study the neuron and list the function of each component - ANS-Dendrites receive information/impulses
An investigation tested the following hypothesis: "As age increases, intellectually ability decreases". The investigator recruited 50 males and 50 females to participate in the study. Participants were recruited from New York, El Paso, and Los Angeles. What was the dependent variable in the above study? - ANS-Intellectual ability An investigator tests the following hypothesis: "As exposure to T.V. violence increases, aggressive behavior in children increases". What is the independent variable? - ANS- Amount of T.V. violence viewed by children "Psychology" is formally defined as the scientific study of - ANS-Behavior and metal processess For centuries philosophers debated whether an individual's behavior was mainly the product of 'inborn tendencies' or the product of 'environmental forces'. This debate is known as the - ANS-Nature vs. Nurture debate Who developed the first research laboratory in psychology? - ANS-Wilhelm Wundt Neutral signals within a single neuron travel from the - ANS-Dendrites to the cell body to the axon An axon is - ANS-The extension of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body Neurotransmitters are - ANS-Chemical messengers Motor neurons send information from - ANS-The central nervous system to muscles which causes them to relax or contract The junction or point of communication between two neurons is called - ANS-A synapse The fatty substance that surrounds some axons is called - ANS-Myelin Kim is a patient in the hospital recovering from a bad car crash in which her head was badly hurt. Her mom visits Kim in her hospital room. Surprisingly, Kim insists that the woman visitor is not her real mother but an impostor! Kim may be suffering from - ANS- Capgras syndrome Which of the following are neurotransmitters? - ANS-Dopamine, Serotonin, and Acetycholine Dendrites - ANS-Short fibers that receive neural messages from neighboring neurons The central nervous system consists of - ANS-The brain and spinal cord
Axons are sometimes surrounded by (encased in) a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath insulates nerve impulses and also - ANS-Speeds up neural impulses Alicia reports seeing the color red every time she hears the C-minor on the piano. Alicia most likely suffers from - ANS-Synesthesia Hypothesis - ANS-a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables (this is a statement, not a question) Variable - ANS-Any phenomenon or stimulus that can vary in value independent variable - ANS-Experimental factor that is manipulated; the treatment itself (ex. TV time, 15 minutes) Dependent variable - ANS-The behavior that is measure; the factor that might be affected by changes in the independent variable (ex. Children's behavior) Operational definition - ANS-Specifies the operations and procedures that are used to define the independent and dependent variables Random assignment - ANS-Assigning participants to groups by chance which reduces bias, they all have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of groups in the study (ex. choosing heads or tails and flipping a coin) Experimental group - ANS-The group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions. including the independent variable Control group - ANS-In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Random selection - ANS-Subjects are selected randomly from a larger group so that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study Placebo - ANS-a fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects Expectancy effects - ANS-the influence of the researcher's expectations on the outcome of the study Confounding variables - ANS-A variable whose uncontrolled presence serves to confound your results and possibly leads to false conclusions Double-blind study - ANS-An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
Myelin (Myelin sheath) - ANS-A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed Resting potential - ANS-The state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation Action potential - ANS-A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron Terminal buttons - ANS-Small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine) Neurotransmitters - ANS-Chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron Acetylcholine - ANS-A neurotransmitter that causes muscle contractions and is involved in learning and memory Serotonin - ANS-Involved in sensory perceptions, sleep, and emotion Dopamine - ANS-Involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or rewarding sensations Neuro-chemical signaling - ANS-Between two neurons involves point-to-point communication (signal is passed immediately and terminates rapidly). Synapse - ANS-Junction between 2 neurons Cortex - ANS-Outer bark of the brain, 2-3 mm. thick Visual cortex - ANS-The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes involving visual processing Auditory cortex - ANS-the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information Frontal lobe (cortex) - ANS-In charge of executive control. Involved with impulse control, decision making, irrationality/reasoning Somatosensory cortex - ANS-An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations Motor cortex - ANS-An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements 4 lobes of the brain - ANS-Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
Controlateral signals - ANS-The right hemisphere controls the left side of the brain and vice versa which are motor and sensory pathways Corpus Callosum - ANS-Fibers that connecting both hemispheres of the brain Frontal lobe - ANS-Executive functioning, planning, impulse control, motor cortex, and activity Parietal lobe - ANS-Sensory cortex- sensory information-touch, pressure, temperature, and pain Occiptal lobe - ANS-Visual information Temporal lobe - ANS-Auditory information Hippocampus - ANS-A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories Amygdala - ANS-Involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Located in the temporal lobe Broca's aphasia - ANS-An aphasia associated with damage to the Broca's area of the brain, people find it difficult or impossible to speak (AKA expressive aphasia) Wernike's Aphasia - ANS-Condition resulting from damages to Wernike's area, people have great difficulty comprehending written or spoken communication (AKA receptive aphasia). Word salad Language center - ANS-Usually located in the left hemisphere Left hemisphere functions - ANS-Right hand touch, speech, language, writing, logic, math, and science Right hemisphere functions - ANS-Left hand touch, spatial construction, creative thinking, fantasy, art appreciation, music appreciation Split brain research - ANS-Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres. Phantom limbs - ANS-A condition characterized by feelings that an amputated limb is present Lesion - ANS-A pathological change of the tissues due to disease or injury
Sensory adaptation - ANS-diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Habituation - ANS-Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Identify the two photo-receptors discussed in class. there location, and their function - ANS-Rods- Peripheral Cons- Color- Retina Identify monocular cues reviewed in class - ANS--Interposition -Texture gradient -Elevation -Linear perspective Describe the experiment testing depth perception in babies - ANS-Crawling to verify depth perception What does REM stand for? - ANS-Rapid Eye Movement What 5 body processes decline during non-REM sleep? - ANS-- Cardiac Rate
- Respiration
- Body Temp
- Blood Pressure
- Metabolic Activity What 5 body processes characterize REM sleep? - ANS-- Breathing is irregular
- Eyes dart back and forth
- Cerebral blood flow rises
- Brain Temp Rises
- Paralysis of large muscles REM is associated with dreams Does REM sleep help us learn? How was this proven in a study? - ANS-Yes, when woken up during REM sleep people were not able to do well Why is it relevant to you as a student? - ANS-Studying all night/Not sleeping What neurotransmitter is involved in REM sleep? - ANS-Serotonin, Melatonin ACH- Acetylcholine which is linked to memory and learning Which of the following occurs during REM sleep? A. Brain temperature increases B. Eyes dart back and forth under the eyelids
C. Breathing becomes irregular D. All of the above - ANS-D. All of the above Vivid dreams typically occur during - ANS-REM sleep Which cells are most light sensitive - ANS-Rods Which receptor cells most directly enable us perceive color? - ANS-Cones Evidence suggests that we consolidate our memories of recent life events during: - ANS-REM Sleep Which of the following disorders is characterized by the temporary cessation of breathing while asleep? - ANS-Sleep apnea In a study of the impact of sleep on learning, subjects were asked to learn a 'perceptual detective task' immediately prior to falling asleep. Investigators subsequently awake some subjects during REM sleep and awoke others during Delta (Stage 4) sleep. Which group of subjects displayed the worst performance on the perceptual detective task the next morning? - ANS-Subjects who were deprived of REM sleep Sleepwalking occurs during which stage of sleep? - ANS-Delta (stage 4) sleep The feature identified by Hubel and Weisel respond to specific aspects of _____________ stimulation? - ANS-Visual A newspaper reported that the message "Eat Popcorn", presented for less than 50 milliseconds on a movie screen, increased the purchase and consumption of popcorn during the movie. Follow-up research on subliminal perception and consumer purchasing decisions: - ANS-Did not confirm the impact of subliminal messages on consumer purchasing decisions an behavior The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for their differences to be perceived is known as - ANS-Weber's law After sitting in a hot bath for five minutes and not moving you fail to realize how hot the water is in the bathtub. This best illustrates: - ANS-Sensory adaptation Pavlov placed food on a dog's tongue and the dog salivated. Pavlov then rang a bell a second before placing the food on the dog's tongue. Again the dog salivated. What was the unconditioned stimulus? - ANS-The food In Pavlov's experiment a dog salivated in response to the sound of a bell. After conditioning, the bell is called - ANS-A conditioned stimulus
Primary reinforcer - ANS-Stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species (ex. food, water) Secondary reinforcer - ANS-stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer Extinction - ANS-Getting rid of behavior by withholding reinforcement Token economy - ANS-A form of behavior therapy in which the therapeutic environment is structured to reward desired behaviors with tokens or points that may eventually be exchanged for tangible rewards. Schedule of reinforcement - ANS-Delivery of reinforcement according to a present pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses Fixed ratio - ANS-A fixed number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs, it also produces the highest rate of responses Variable ratio - ANS-Reinforcement is provided after an AVERAGE number of responses. Reinforcement varies around the average. Post-reinforcement pauses are shorter/less often. Produces HIGHEST rates of behavior. Fixed interval - ANS-Reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed (Ex. getting paid every week as soon as you turn in a file) Variable interval - ANS-Reinforcement when a behavior occurs after an AVERAGE time interval. Produce higher rates of responding than FI. (Ex. making a sale after anywhere from 1-7 days but on average 3) Neutral moments - ANS-Neither reinforcing nor punishing (Punishment is not a form or reinforcement**) Albert Bandura - ANS-pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play Latent learning - ANS-Tolman's term for learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available (Ex. maze learning and cognitive maps. 3 groups: first group had no reinforcement, second group had continuous reinforcement, third group had reinforcement after the 11th trial) Latent - ANS-Below the surface, hidden
Which individual contributed to research on 'operant conditioning'? - ANS-B.F. Skinner What is the best example of a secondary or conditioned reinforcer? - ANS-Applause for an excellent piano recital Purchasing lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a _____ schedule? - ANS-Variable ratio A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n) - ANS-Specified number of responses have been made Keller and Marian Breland tried to train a chicken to play baseball. The chicken was successfully trained to pull a loop that activated the swing of a bat that subsequently hit a ball. Bu the chicken chased the ball! The failure to condition the chicken to run towards first base arose because - ANS-The chicken's instinctive or 'natural' behavior overrode attempts at conditioning, a phenomena known as instinctive drift In class we discussed several examples of possible 'reinforcers'. Which of the following could serve as a reinforcer? - ANS-Treats like candy or soda, money, and scolding I stop delivering food pellets when a rat presses a lever in a 'Skinner box'. The rat continues to press the lever many times but eventually stops pressing the lever in the absence of reinforcement. This process is called - ANS-Extinction An even or stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n) - ANS-Reinforcer Principles of operant conditioning were initially investigated by studying the behavior of rats placed in a cage. The cage was referred to as a - ANS-Skinner box What are some examples of primary reinforcers? - ANS-Sex, water, and food In which form is behavior said to be influence by its consequences? - ANS-Operant Conditioning An animal trainer is teaching a miniature poodle to balance on a ball. Initially, he gives the poodle a treat for approaching the ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally only for climbing on the ball. The trainer is using the method of - ANS- Shaping or successive approximations The minimum amount of stimulation that a person needs to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time is called: - ANS-Absolute threshold. The feature detectors identified by Hubel and Weisel respond to specific aspects of _____ stimulation. - ANS-Visual
Which of the following can be influenced by classical conditioning? - ANS-salivation, immune functioning, fear responses (e.g., muscle tension, increased heart rate) The term "phobia' refers to: - ANS-An irrational fear An event or stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a - ANS-Reinforcer Retinal disparity refers to the: - ANS-Somewhat different images our two eyes receive of the same object Evidence suggests that we consolidate our memories of recent life events during: - ANS-REM sleep REM sleep might be called paradoxical sleep because: - ANS-Our nervous system is highly active, while large voluntary muscles can hardly move Which of the following is example of a primary reinforcer? - ANS-Food, sex, water An animal trainer is teaching a miniature poodle to balance on a ball. Initially, the trainer gives the poodle a treat for approaching the ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally only for climbing on the ball. The trainer is using the method of: - ANS-Shaping or successive approximations Forty-year-old Lance insists that he never dreams. Research suggests that he probably:
- ANS-Would report a vivid dream if he were awakened during REM sleep Which of the following is the best example of a secondary or conditioned reinforcer? - ANS-Applause for an excellent piano recital At 1:00 a.m., Luis gets out of bed and begins to sleepwalk. An EEG of his brain activity is most likely to indicate the presence of: - ANS-Delta waves Resistance to extinction is most strongly encouraged by which schedule of reinforcement? A) fixed ratio or continuous B) variable ratio C) fixed interval D) None of the above - ANS-B) Variable Ratio Which of the following disorders is characterized by the temporary cessation of breathing while asleep? - ANS-Sleep apnea Purchasing state lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a ________ schedule. - ANS-Variable ratio A fixed-ratio schedule reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n): - ANS-Specified number of responses have been made
In a study of the impact of sleep on learning, subjects were asked to learn a perceptual detective task immediately prior to going to sleep. Investigators subsequently awoke some subjects during REM sleep and awoke other subjects during Delta sleep. Which group of subjects displayed the worst performance on the perceptual detective task the next morning? - ANS-Subjects who were awakened from REM sleep Sleepwalking occurs during which stage of sleep? - ANS-Delta sleep Which people spend the most time in REM sleep? - ANS-Newborn babies who are born prematurely Which of the following occurs during REM sleep? a. brain temperature increases b. eyes dart back and forth under the eyelids breathing becomes irregular d. all of the above - ANS-D. All of the above Vivid dreams typically occur during: - ANS-REM sleep Children can be conditioned to fear spiders more easily than they are conditioned to fear butterflies. This best illustrates the impact of on __________ on learning behavior - ANS-Biological constraints or predispositions As part of a research study, Albert Bandura had children observe an adult act aggressively. The adult was not reinforced for the aggressive acts. Bandura found that children tend to: - ANS-Model the aggressive behavior Which of the following is an example of a secondary reinforcer? - ANS-Poker chips Binocular cues for depth perception require: - ANS-Information coming into both eyes The sudden and irresistible onset of sleep during normal waking hours is called: - ANS- Narcolepsy Habituation refers to: - ANS-A decrease in responding after repeated presentation of a stimulus Keller and Marian Breland tried to train a chicken to play baseball. The chicken was successfully trained to pull a loop that activated the swing of a bat that subsequently hit a ball. But the chicken could not be trained to run towards first base. Instead the chicken chased the ball! The failure to condition the chicken to chase the ball arose because: - ANS-The chicken's instinctive or 'natural behavior' overrode attempts at conditioning, a phenomena known as instinctive drift Which of the following individuals contributed to research on operant conditioning? - ANS-B.F. Skinner
