psy lecture notes psy lecture notes psy lecture notespsy lecture notes psy lecture notesps | Summaries Psychology

Nervous System: a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

1. Central Nervous System

a) Brain: interprets and stores information then sends orders to muscles and glands

b) Spinal Cord: connects the brain and PNS; life-saving reflexes

2. Peripheral Nervous System: transmits information to and from the central nervous system

a) Autonomic: automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels; involuntary movement

→ Parasympathetic: Maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy; calms down

→ Sympathetic: Prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress; energizes

b) Somatic: Voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

**Neuroscience – a branch of life science that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons,

nerves, and nervous tissues that for the nervous system

Biological Psychology /Behavioral Neuroscience: is the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases

of psychological process, behavior, learning

STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON

In 1887, Santiago Ramon y Cajal, a doctor studying slides of the brain tissue first theorized that the nervous system

was made up of individual cells

Most cells have three things in common: a nucleus, a cell body, a cell membrane

Neuron - is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system

✓ Dendrite = input - the parts of the neuron that receive messages from other cells

* it means tree-like or branch, the dendrites are attached to the cell body, or soma

✓ Soma - is the part of the cell that contains nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning

*soma = cell body = grey matter

✓ Axon = output = white matter - is a fiber attached to the soma, and its job is to carry messages at other cells

✓ Axon Terminals - are responsible for communicating with other nerve cells (may also be called presynaptic

terminals, synaptic knobs)

Glial Cells - cells in the nervous system that

✓ provides support for the neurons to grow on and around

✓ deliver nutrients to neurons

✓ produce myelin to coat axons

✓ clean up waste products and dead neurons

✓ influence information processing and generation of new neurons

✓ play role in learning, thinking, and memory

It holds the neurons in place, makes up 90% off the brain's cells

Possible role in psychiatric disorders

Two special types of glial cells generate myelin:

Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin for neurons in the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

Schwann Cells: produce myelin for the neurons of the body (PNS)

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Nervous System : a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

1. Central Nervous System a) Brain : interprets and stores information then sends orders to muscles and glands b) Spinal Cord : connects the brain and PNS; life-saving reflexes 2. Peripheral Nervous System : transmits information to and from the central nervous system a) Autonomic : automatically regulates glands , internal organs and blood vessels; involuntary movement → Parasympathetic: Maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy ; calms down → Sympathetic: Prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress; energizes b) Somatic : **Voluntary movement of skeletal muscles Neuroscience – a branch of life science that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissues that for the nervous system Biological Psychology /Behavioral Neuroscience : is the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological process, behavior, learning STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON In 1887, Santiago Ramon y Cajal , a doctor studying slides of the brain tissue first theorized that the nervous system was made up of individual cells Most cells have three things in common : a nucleus, a cell body, a cell membrane Neuron - is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system ✓ Dendrite = input - the parts of the neuron that receive messages from other cells * it means tree-like or branch, the dendrites are attached to the cell body, or soma ✓ Soma - is the part of the cell that contains nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning *soma = cell body = grey matter ✓ Axon = output = white matter - is a fiber attached to the soma, and its job is to carry messages at other cells ✓ Axon Terminals - are responsible for communicating with other nerve cells (may also be called presynaptic terminals, synaptic knobs) Glial Cells - cells in the nervous system that ✓ provides support for the neurons to grow on and around ✓ deliver nutrients to neurons ✓ produce myelin to coat axons ✓ clean up waste products and dead neurons ✓ influence information processing and generation of new neurons ✓ play role in learning, thinking, and memory It holds the neurons in place , makes up 90% off the brain's cells Possible role in psychiatric disorders Two special types of glial cells generate myelin: Oligodendrocytes : produce myelin for neurons in the brain and spinal cord (CNS) Schwann Cells : produce myelin for the neurons of the body (PNS)

Myelin Sheath - a layer of fatty substance that wraps around the axon to insulate, protect and speed up neural impulses Nerves - bundles of myelin coated axons that travel together Nodes of Ranvier - unmyelinated parts of the axon THE NEURAL IMPULSE

Neurons at resting potential → Inside neuron (-) [protein], outside neuron (+) [sodium] – due to diffusion and electrostatic pressure → Semipermeable cell membrane
Dendrites activated → Inside the neuron (+), outside the neuron (-) → Action Potential : electric charge reversal
Sodium-potassium gates open → Pumps positive sodium out of the neuron – returns to resting state
Action potential travels down the axon
Neurotransmitters bind with receptor sites of the dendrites of the next neuron (SYNAPSE) → Synaptic Knobs/Axon Terminals : end of the axon → Neurotransmitters are chemicals suspended in the fluid of the synaptic vesicle → Synapse : fluid-filled gap between then next dendrite → Receptor Sites : where the neurotransmitters bind to send the message
New action potential is generated → Remaining neurotransmitters : collected by the old axon and reused [ reuptake ]; not fast enough = enzyme **degradation ALL-OR-NONE: EITHER FIRES AT FULL BLAST OR DOESN’T FIRE AT ALL NEUROTRANSMITTERS A) Types
Excitatory : causes receiving cell to fire
Inhibitory : causes receiving cell to stop firing
Agonists : chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effect
Antagonists : chemical substances that block or reduce the effect B) Examples
Serotonin (E/I) Sleep, mood and appetite (90% found in the stomach)

****Neuroplasticity** → the ability within the brain to change both structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma ****Neurogenesis** → the formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during prenatal developments ****Epigenetics** → the interaction between genes and environmental factors include diet, life experiences, and physical surroundings PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Made up of all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord; transmits all info to CNS

Somatic : controls the voluntary muscles of the body ✓ Sensory Pathway - sensory neurons carrying information to spinal cord and/or brain ✓ Motor Pathway - nerves that carry information to voluntary skeletal muscles
Autonomic : controls automatic functions of the body (organs, glands, involuntary muscles) ✓ Sympathetic Division : energizes you to react to a situation; ‘ fight or flight ’ Ex: When in a stressful situation , pupils dilate, heart pumps faster, blood from the non-essential organs occurs (which makes the person pale), etc. ✓ Parasympathetic Division : ‘ eat drink rest ’; returns the body to normal functioning after a stressful situation ends Ex: regular heartbeat, normal breathing and digestion, etc. ENDOCRINE GLANDS Glands – are organs in the body that secret chemicals ; some affect functioning of the body but not behavior, others have widespread influence on the body and behavior Endocrine Glands – secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream Hormones – chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands Pituitary Gland ✓ secretes human growth hormone ✓ influences all other hormone secreting glands (also known as the master gland* ) ✓ is located under the brain, just below the hypothalamus ✓ Oxytocin – hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors (rapid-childbirth) - role in human social behavior has been making headlines ( love hormone or trust hormone ) Pineal Gland ✓ secretes melatonin ✓ melatonin levels are more influential in regulating the sleep-wake cycle Thyroid Gland ✓ found in the neck ✓ secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism (thyroxin)

Pancreas ✓ controls the level of blood sugar in the body by secreting insulin and glucagon − secretes insulin to reduce − secretes glucagon increase − If secretes too little insulin → diabetes − If secretes too much insulin → hypoglycemia Gonads ✓ sex glands; ovaries (female gonads) and testes (male gonads) ✓ secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as the reproduction Adrenal Glands ✓ located on top of each kidney ✓ Adrenal Medulla – secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to control the stress reaction ✓ Adrenal Cortex – secretes over 30 different hormones(corticoids) to deal with stress , regulate salt intake , and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence ✓ Includes cortisol which is produced in stressful situations and releases glucose to the blood and energy from fat STUDYING THE BRAIN LESIONING ✓ Destruction of some parts of the brain to study its effect ✓ An electrical current strong enough to kill off the target neurons is sent through the tip of the wire ✓ Not an ideal way BRAIN STIMULATION Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) ✓ The much milder electric current to stimulate a part of the brain ✓ Invasive Techniques – stimulating from the inside → DBS ✓ Noninvasive Techniques – stimulating from the outside → TMS - DCS Ex: surgeon performing open brain surgery with the patient awake – stimulates a part of the brain then seeing its effects on the patient MAPPING STRUCTURE Computed Tomography Scan (CT) ✓ Takes a series of x-rays of the brain to provide a 2D picture of the brain and its structures (STRUCTURE) ✓ Does not show very small details ✓ Does not cause harm to the person ✓ Can show stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure ✓ The structural imaging method of choice when there is metal in the body Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scan (MRI) ✓ Shows very small details within the brain; 3D anatomical image (STRUCTURE) ✓ Uses magnetic fields and radio waves ✓ Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) - uses MRI to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging white matter (myelinated axons) tracts - has been used to investigate structural changes associated with memory performance , and disorders including Alzheimer's, MS, traumatic brain injury

- MID BRAIN/LIMBIC SYSTEM- center of emotion A group of several brain structures located primarily under the cortex AND involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation (also smell) Thalamus ✓ Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain ✓ relays sensory information from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex (except sense of smell) ✓ The sense of smell is unique in that signals from the neurons in the sinus cavity go directly into special parts of the brain called olfactory bulbs ✓ Smell is the only sense that does not have to first pass through the thalamus ✓ Damage to the thalamus might result in the loss or partial loss of any or all of sensations (hearing, sight, touch, or taste) Hypothalamus ✓ Small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland ✓ Responsible for motivational behaviors such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex ✓ Regulates body temperature, amount of fear, aggression we feel ✓ Also controls the pituitary gland, so the ultimate regulation of hormones lies with the hypothalamus Hippocampus - seahorse ✓ curved structure located within each temporal lobe ✓ Responsible for the formation of long-term declarative memories Amygdala ✓ Is located near the hippocampus ✓ **Responsible for fear responses and memory of fear Cingulate Cortex - Play an important role in both emotional and cognitive processing

CORTEX-** ✓ The wrinkled outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons ✓ Responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input ✓ Cerebral Hemispheres - the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain ✓ Each hemisphere is responsible for the opposite side of the body ✓ Corpus Callosum - thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres Lobes of the Brain ❖ Occipital (VISUAL) → Back and base of each hemisphere → Primary visual cortex : processes visual information from the eyes → Visual association cortex : identifies and makes sense of visual information ❖ Parietal (SPEAKING) → Top and back of the cortex → Contains somatosensory cortex that responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, body position, and temperature (weather outside)

❖ Temporal (HEARING) → Located along the side of the brain → Containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech → Primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information from the ears → Auditory association area: interprets ❖ Frontal (THINKING) → Located in the front and top of the brain → Responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making as well as the production of fluent speech → Contain the motor cortex which controls voluntary muscles Association areas of the cortex - help people make sense of the incoming sensory input → Broca's Area - in the left frontal lobe - allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently → Broca's Aphasia - condition resulting from damage to this area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly → Wernicke's Area - in the left temporal lobe - involves understanding the meaning of words → Wernicke's Aphasia - condition resulting from damage to this area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language Aphasia – refers to an inability to use or understand either written or spoken language CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES Cerebrum - the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and structures that connect them Split-Brain Research - some brain functions governed by one hemisphere more than the others; differences found due to the work of various researchers Left Hemisphere - language, speech, handwriting, math ✓ processes information sequentially ✓ controls the right hand ✓ spoken language ✓ written language ✓ mathematical calculations ✓ logical thought process ✓ analyzes of detail ✓ Reading Right Hemisphere - perception, recognition of patterns, faces, and emotional expression ✓ controls the left hand ✓ nonverbal ✓ visual spatial perception ✓ music and artistic processing ✓ emotional thought and recognition ✓ processes the whole/ globally ✓ pattern recognition ✓ facial recognition

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