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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE-
Organization of Human Body
Doc. Milliem Reyes|1st^ Semester | BSMLS-1K
ANATOMY ● ( ana- up; -tomy process of cutting) to cut up ● It was first studied by dissection (dis-SEK-shun; dis- apart; -section act of cutting), carefully cutting apart body structures to examine their relationships. ● The science of body structures and the relationships among them. SUBSPECIALTIES OF ANATOMY ● Gross anatomy: Structures that can be examined without a microscope, studying large, easily observable structures. ● Embryology: The first eight weeks of development following fertilization of an egg (in humans). ● Developmental biology: The complete development of an individual from fertilization of an egg to death. ● Cell biology: Cellular structure and functions. ● Histology: Microscopic structure of tissues. ● Surface anatomy: Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touch). ● Systemic anatomy: Structure of specific body systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems ● Regional anatomy: Specific body regions such as the head or chest. ● Radiographic anatomy: Body structures that can be visualized with X-rays. ● Pathological anatomy: Structural changes microscopic) associated with the disease. PHYSIOLOGY (physio-nature; -logy study of) ● The science of body functions—how the body parts work. ● Study of the nature of things SUBSPECIALTIES OF PHYSIOLOGY
● Neurophysiology: Functional properties
of nerve cells explain the nervous system's workings.
● Endocrinology: Hormones (chemical
regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions
● Cardiovascular physiology: Functions
of the heart and blood vessels that act as a muscular pump to keep blood flowing throughout the body.
● Immunology: How the body defends
itself against disease-causing agents.
● Respiratory physiology: Functions of
the air passageways and lungs.
● Renal physiology: Functions of the
kidneys.
● Exercise physiology: Changes in cell
and organ functions result from muscular activity.
● Pathophysiology: Functional changes
associated with disease and aging. Anatomy and physiology are always related. The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each has a job to make the body operate as a whole. The structure of a part of the body allows the performance of certain functions.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION CHEMICAL LEVEL ( atoms to DNA ) ● At the very basic level, molecules, atoms, and tiny building blocks of matter combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and proteins. ● Two familiar molecules found in the body are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material passed from one generation to the next, and glucose. CELLULAR LEVEL ( smooth muscle cell ) ● Molecules combine to form cells, an organism's basic structural and functional units; cells are the smallest living units in the human body. ● Among the many kinds of cells in your body are muscle, nerve, and epithelial cells. ● Organelles - small structures that make up some cells. TISSUE LEVEL ( smooth muscle tissue ) ● Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function ● There are just four basic types of tissue in your body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. ORGAN LEVEL ( organs ) ● Composed of different tissue types, they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes. An organ system that works together to accomplish a common purpose. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
● Consists of different organs classified
as units because of a common function
or set of functions that work together
closely.
ORGANISM LEVEL
● Represents the highest level of
structural organization; organ systems
make up the living human being.
● Any living thing is considered as a
whole.
ORGAN SYSTEM ● INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ○ It protects the body, helps regulate body temperature, eliminates some wastes, and helps make vitamin D. ○ skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands ● SKELETAL SYSTEM ○ Supports and protects the body; provides a surface area for muscle attachments; aids body movements; houses cells that produce blood cells; stores minerals and lipids (fats). ○ Axial and Appendicular Skeleton ● MUSCULAR SYSTEM ○ The body's muscles have only one function—to contract or shorten. ○ It produces body movements, such as walking, stabilizes body position (posture), and generates heat. ● NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ The body's fast-acting control system. ○ Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities and responds by
GROWTH
● An increase in body size results from an
increase in the size of existing cells, an
increase in the number of cells, or both.
DIFFERENTIATION ● The development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. ○ Totipotent - able to give rise to all embryonic and adult lineages ○ Pluripotent - able to give rise to all cell types in an adult. Cannot be a placenta ○ Multipotent - able to give rise to multiple cells within a lineage. Become any type of cell ● In response to changing conditions, the body’s equilibrium can shift among points in a narrow range that is compatible with maintaining life. REPRODUCTION ● Refers to the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement or to the production of a new individual. ● Mitosis and Fertilization When any life processes cease to occur correctly the result is the death of cells and tissues, whic may lead to the organism's death. HOMEOSTASIS ● homeo- the same, stasis- to stop ● An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids. These dilute, watery solutions contain dissolved chemicals found inside and surrounding cells. ● Homeostasis ensures that the body's internal environment remains steady despite changes inside and outside the body. ○ Internal environment - consists of the fluid surrounding the body cells, called the extracellular fluid. It includes tissue fluid and blood plasma. FEEDBACK MECHANISM ● The body can regulate its internal environment through many feedback systems. ● Cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. ○ controlled condition - monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose level ○ stimulus - Any disruption that changes a controlled condition ● Receptor (afferent) - The one that sends the input in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. ● Control center (efferent) - Evaluates the input from receptors and generates output commands when needed. The output ● Effector - receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM ● reverses a change in a controlled condition. ● reversing the stimuli you receive ● Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood as it presses against the walls of blood vessels. When the heart beats faster or harder, BP increases.To solve this using negative feedback, The system continues to lower blood pressure until there is a return to normal blood pressure (homeostasis).
POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM ● strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. A positive feedback system operates similarly to a negative one, except for how the response affects the controlled condition. ● Reinforcement of a change ● In Childbirth, the cervix will continue to grow, not go back to its original form, and the uterus will also increase. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE ● One or more components of the body lose their ability to contribute to homeostasis. If the homeostatic imbalance is moderate, a disorder or disease may occur; if it is severe, death may result. ● Disorder is any abnormality of structure or function. ● Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms. ○ local disease affects one part or a limited region of the body ○ systemic disease affects either the entire body or several parts of it The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community is known as epidemiology. Pharmacology is the science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease
or an organ and divides it into equal right and left sides ○ parasagittal plane - sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides ● Frontal or coronal plane divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions ● Transverse plane divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. It is also called Cross-sectional or horizontal plane ● Oblique plane - contrast, passes through the body or an organ at an angle between a trans verse plane and a sagittal plane or between a transverse plane and a frontal plane. It is a slant-like plane. BODY CAVITIES ● spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs. Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from one another. ● DORSAL BODY CAVITY ○ Cranial cavity - formed by cranial bones, which contain the brain. ○ Vertebral (spinal) canal - formed from the bones of the vertebral column ( backbone), which contains the spinal cord. ● Thoracic cavity - major cavities of the trunk, formed by the ribs, chest muscles, sternum, and thoracic portion of the vertebral column. ○ pericardial cavity - Surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium. Pericardium a serous membrane of the pericardial cavity ○ pleural cavity - Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of each pleural cavity is the pleura. Pleura a serous membrane of the pleural cavities ○ mediastinum - the central part of the thoracic cavity. a space between the visceral and parietal pleura. ○ diaphragm - the dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity ● Abdominopelvic cavity - Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. ○ Abdominal cavity - superior portion Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum. ○ Pelvic cavity - inferior portion, Contains urinary bladder,
portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction. ○ peritoneum - is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity ● Viscera- Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities ● Serous membrane - thin, slippery, double-layered and covers the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also lines the walls of the thorax and abdomen. ○ parietal laye r - which lines the walls of the cavities ○ visceral layer - which covers and adheres to the viscera within the cavities. ABDOMINAL REGION ● To describe the location of the many abdominal and pelvic organs more easily, quadrant designation is used to locate the site of pain , tumors or some other abnormality. ● First method of abdominal region , two horizontal and two vertical lines, aligned like a tic-tac-toe grid, partition this cavity into nine. ● Abdominopelvic Region - Nine region designation is used for anatomical studies. MEDICAL IMAGING ● refers to techniques and procedures used to create images of the human body. Various types of medical imaging allow visualization of structures inside our bodies and are increasingly helpful for precisely diagnosing a wide range of anatomical and physiological disorders. ● Radiography (Xray) - a resulting two-dimensional image when a single barrage of x-rays passes through the body, producing an image of interior structures on x-ray-sensitive ● Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - a two or three-dimensional blueprint of cellular chemistry when the body is exposed to a high-energy magnetic field, which causes protons in body fluids and tissues to arrange themselves in relation to the field ● Computed Tomography (CT) - an x-ray beam traces an arc at multiple angles around a section of the body. The
