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Area:ENGLISH Focus:IntroductiontoLinguistics Competencies:
- demonstratefamiliaritywiththetheoriesoflanguage and language learning and theirinfluence on language teaching
- revisittheknowledgeoflinguistictheoriesandconceptsand applyittotheteachingofcommunicationskills–listening, speaking,reading,writing,andgrammar
- show understandingofhow languagerulesareusedinreal conversations
A.LinguisticsandEnglishLanguageTeaching Teachers’knowledgeontheworkingsoflanguageandlanguage teachingareessentiallyintertwinedwitheachother.Theteachers’ competenceonhowalanguagebehaveswillcertainlyhelpteachers explaintothestudentshowthelanguageworks,aswellasanticipate andrespondappropriatelytopossiblelearningdifficulties. 1 .Knowledgeoflinguistics,specificallyphonology,maybeuseful forexplaininginterferenceproblemsthatmaybeexperienced byEnglishlanguagelearnerswiththeEnglishsoundsystem.To illustrate,intheabsenceofthefollowingsoundssuchas/f/ and/v/inPhilippinelanguages,exceptinIvatanand Ibanag, Filipino English learners are likelyto use /p/and /v/as substitutesounds,e.g.,/pæn/for/fæn/‘fan’and/bæn/for /væn/‘van’.Languageteachersareadvisedtorememberthat eachlanguagehasitsowninventoryofphonemesthatmay differfrom thatofanotherlanguage.Suchdifferencesmay resultinusingsoundsthatonly approximatethetargetsounds, asshownintheaforecitedexamples. 2 .Languageteachersneedtorealizethatgrammaticalunitssuch as morphemes,words,phrases and clauses behave quite differentlyacrosslanguages.Forexample,plurality,andtense inEnglishareexpressedthroughinflectionsasis{-s/-es}and{- ed}.However,Tagalogpluralityisexpressedasseparatewords asin mgabata‘children’.Linguisticallyspeaking,Tagalogverbs have no tense,only aspects – perfective “ kumain’and imperfective ‘kumakain’,which may explain the Filipinos’ problemsindealingwithEnglishtenses. 3 .Helpingstudentstodiscoverthemeaningofwordsbyparsing them into smallparts depends heavily on the teacher’s knowledge of morphology or word formation rules. To exemplify,studentsmayparseorsegmentthefollowingwords, taking note of the morpheme {-ment} that recurs in embarrassment,government,disillusionment,enhancement.As
studentsdiscoverthemeaningof{-ment}as‘stateorcondition’, theymaybeabletogivethemeaningofthecitedexamplesas: ‘stateofbeingembarrassed’,‘stateofgoverning’,‘stateofbeing disillusioned’,and‘stateofenhancing’.Hence,theprocessof wordformationsuchas derivationmayhelplearnersinterpret andremembermeaningofwordsthatfollowcertainpatternsin formingshortwordsintolongerwords. 4 .Teachers’knowledgeaboutlargerunitsoflanguageuse– discourse structure – may be relevant when teaching exchangesorconversations.Theuseoflanguageforsocial functionssuchasaskingpermissioninvolvesfamiliaritywith modalsthatexpressformalityandahigherdegreeofpoliteness whenspeakingwithsomeonewhoisolder,whooccupiesa higherposition,orisanauthoritythanthespeaker.Inthis contextappropriacyhastobeobservedinselectingmodals. Forexample,itisappropriatetouse may,not canwhenasking permissionfrom someonewhoisolder,higherinpositionthan thespeaker.e.g. MayIusetheofficecomputer?
B.ViewsaboutLanguage
- Thestructuralistsbelievethatlanguagecanbedescribed intermsofobservableandverifiabledataasitisbeing used.They also describe language in terms of its structureandaccordingtotheregularitiesandpatternsor rules in language structure.To them,language is a system ofspeech sounds,arbitrarilyassigned to the objects,states,andconceptstowhichtheyrefer,usedfor humancommunication. Language is primarily vocal.Language is speech, primarilymadeupofvocalsoundsproducedbythe speech apparatusin the human body.The primary medium oflanguageisspeech;thewrittenrecordis but a secondary representation of the language. Writing is only the graphic representation ofthe soundsofthelanguage.Whilemostlanguageshave writingsystems,anumberoflanguagescontinueto exist,eventoday,inthespokenform only,withoutany writtenform.Linguistsclaim thatspeechisprimary, writing secondary.Therefore,it is assumed that speechhasapriorityinlanguageteaching. L anguageisasystem ofsystems.Languageisnota disorganized ora chaotic combination ofsounds. Soundsarearrangedincertainfixedorestablished, systematicordertoform meaningfulunitsorwords. Forexample,nowordinEnglishstartswith bz-, lr-or zl- combination,buttherearethosethatbeginwith spr- and str-(asin springand string).Inlikemanner,words arealsoarrangedinaparticularsystem togenerate
languageinanamazinglyshorttime,aroundfiveyears sincebirth. Languageiscreative.Itenablesnativespeakersto produce and understand sentences they have not heardnorusedbefore. Language is a mental phenomenon. It is not mechanical. Languageisuniversal.Itisuniversalinthesensethat allnormalchildrentheworldoveracquireamother tonguebutitisalsouniversalinthesensethat,ata highlyabstractlevel,alllanguagesmustshare key featuresofhumanlanguages,suchasalllanguages have sounds;alllanguages have rules thatform soundsintowords,wordsintophrasesandclauses; and alllanguages have transformation rules that enablespeakerstoaskquestions,negatesentences, issueorders,defocusthedoeroftheaction,etc.
- The functionalistsbelieve thatlanguage isa dynamic system throughwhichmembersofspeechcommunity exchangeinformation.Itisavehiclefortheexpressionof functionalmeaningsuchasexpressingone’semotions, persuadingpeople,askingandgivinginformation,making peopledothingsforothers. This view oflanguage emphasizes the meaning and functionsratherthanthegrammaticalcharacteristicsof language,and leads to a language teaching content consisting of categories of meaning/notions and functions rather than of elements of structure and grammar.
- Theinteractionistsbelievethatlanguageisavehiclefor establishing interpersonalrelationsand forperforming socialtransactionsbetweenindividuals.Itisatoolfor creating and maintaining social relations through conversations.Languageteachingcontent,accordingto thisview,maybespecifiedandorganizedbypatternsof exchangeandinteraction.
B. AcquisitionofLanguage
- Behavioristlearningtheory.Derivedfrom ageneraltheory oflearning,thebehavioristviewstatesthatthelanguage behavioroftheindividualisconditionedbysequencesof differentialrewardsinhis/herenvironment. Itregards language learning as a behaviorlike other formsofhuman behavior,nota mentalphenomenon,
learnedbyaprocessofhabitformation.Sincelanguageis viewed asmechanisticand asa human activity,itis believedthatlearningalanguageisachievedbybuilding up habits on the basis ofstimulus-response chains. Behaviorism emphasizes the consequences of the responseandarguesthatitisthebehaviorthatfollowsa responsewhichreinforcesitandthushelpstostrengthen theassociation. According to Littlewood ( 1984 ),the process ofhabit formationincludesthefollowing: a.Thechildimitatesthesoundsandpatternswhichs/he hearsaroundher/him. b.Peoplerecognizethechild’sattemptsasbeingsimilar totheadultmodelsandreinforce(reward)thesounds byapprovalorsomeotherdesirablereaction. c.Inordertoobtainmoreoftheserewards,thechild repeatsthesoundsandpatternssothatthesebecome habits. d.Inthiswaythechild’sverbalbehaviorisconditioned (‘shaped’)untilthe habits coincide with the adult models. Thebehavioristsclaim thatthethreecrucialelementsof learningare:astimulus,whichservestoelicitbehavior;a responsetriggeredbythestimulus,andreinforcement, whichservestomarktheresponseasbeingappropriate (orinappropriate)and encourages the repetition (or suppression)oftheresponse.
- Cognitive Learning Theory. Chomsky argues that languageisnotacquiredbychildrenbysheerimitation andthroughaform ofconditioningonreinforcementand reward.Hebelievesthatallnormalhumanbeingshavean inborn biological internal mechanism that makes languagelearningpossible.Cognitivists/innatistsclaim thatthechildisbornwithan‘initial’state’aboutlanguage whichpredisposeshim/hertoacquireagrammarofthat language.Theymaintainthatthelanguageacquisition device (LAD)is whatthe child brings to the task of language acquisition,giving him/heran active role in languagelearning. Oneimportantfeatureofthementalistaccountofsecond languageacquisitionishypothesistesting,aprocessof formulatingrulesandtestingthesamewithcompetent speakersofthetargetlanguage.
- Krashen’sMonitorModel( 1981 ).Probablythisisthe mostoften cited among theoriesofsecond language acquisition;consideredthemostcomprehensive,ifnot themostambitious,consistingoffivecentralhypotheses:
everyday.) possessive- s(Thegirl ’sbagisnew.)
b.The monitorhypothesis.Itclaims thatconscious learningofgrammaticalruleshasanextremelylimited function in languageperformance:asamonitoror editorthatchecksoutput.Themonitorisanediting device thatmaynormallyoperate before language performance.Such editing may occur before the naturaloutputoraftertheouput. Krashensuggeststhatmonitoringoccurswhenthere is sufficient time, where there is pressure to communicatecorrectlyandnotjustconveymeaning, andwhentheappropriaterulesareknown. d.Theinputhypothesis.Krashen proposesthatwhen learnersareexposedtogrammaticalfeaturesalittle beyondtheircurrentlevel(i.e.,i+ 1 ),thosefeaturesare ‘acquired’.Acquisition results from comprehensible input,which ismade understandable with the help provided by the context. If learners receive understandable input,language structures willbe naturallyacquired.Abilitytocommunicateinasecond language‘emerges’ratherthanindirectlyputinplace byteaching. c.The affective filter hypothesis.Filter consists of attitudetolanguage,motivation,self-confidenceand anxiety.Thuslearnerswithfavorableattitudeandself- confidence mayhave a ‘low filter’which promotes languagelearning.Learnerswithalow affectivefilter seekandreceivemoreinput,interactwithconfidence, andaremorereceptivetotheinputtheyareexposedto. On the otherhand,anxious learners have a high affectivefilterwhichpreventsacquisitionfrom taking place.
d.Implicationsforteaching: 1 .Teachersmustcontinuouslydeliverata level understandablebylearners. 2 .Teachingmustpreparethelearnersforreallife communication situations. Classrooms must provideconversationalconfidencesothatwhen intheoutsideworld,thestudentcancopewith andcontinuelearning. 3 .Teachers mustensure thatlearners do not become anxious or defensive in language learning.Theconfidenceofalanguagelearner
mustbeencouragedinalanguageacquisition process.Teachersshouldnotinsistonlearners conversingbeforetheyfeelcomfortableindoing so;neithershouldtheycorrecterrorsnormake negative remarks that inhibit learners from learning.Theyshoulddevisespecifictechniques torelaxlearnersandprotecttheiregos. 4 .Teachers mustcreate an atmosphere where learners are notembarrassed bytheirerrors. Errorsshouldnotbecorrectedwhenacquisition isoccurring.Errorcorrectionisvaluablewhen learning simple rules butmay have negative effectsintermsofanxietyandinhibitions. 5 .Formalgrammarteaching is oflimited value because itcontributesto learning ratherthan acquisition.Onlysimplerulesshouldbelearned. 6 .Teachersshouldnotexpectlearnerstolearn‘late structures’suchasthirdpersonsingularearly.
C. InfluencesofTheoriesonLanguageTeaching 1 .Appliedlinguistsclaim thattheoriesoflanguagelearningas wellastheoriesoflanguagemayprovidethebasisfora particularteaching approach/method.To illustrate,the linkingofstructuralism andbehaviorism hasproducedthe audiolingual method (ALM), oral approach/situational languageteaching,operantconditioningapproach,bottom- uptextprocessing,controlled-to-freewriting,tociteafew. Thesemethodsunderscorethenecessityofoverlearning,a principlethatleadstoendlessandmindlessmimicryand memorization(‘mim-mem’).Theyarealsocharacterizedby mechanical habit-formation teaching, done through unremittingpractice:sentencepatternsarerepeatedand drilled untilthey become habitualand automatic to minimize occurrences ofmistakes.Grammaris taught throughanalogy,hence,explanationsofrulesarenotgiven untilthestudentshavepracticedapatterninavarietyof contexts. 2 .Thecognitivelearningtheoryhasgivenbirthtothecognitive approachto learning thatputslanguageanalysisbefore languageuseand instructionbytheteacher,beforethe studentspracticeforms.Itiscompatiblewiththeviewthat learning is a thinking process,a beliefthatunderpins cognitive-basedandschema-enhancingstrategiessuchas DirectedReadingThinkingActivity,StoryGrammar,Think- Aloud,tonameafew. 3 .The functional view of language has resulted in communication-based methods such as Communicative Language Teaching/Communicative Approach,Notional-
sentences are constructed.Itis the system ofrules and categoriesthatunderliessentenceformation.Italsoinvolves the description ofrules,ofpositioning ofelements in the sentence such as noun phrases,verb phrases,adverbial phrases,etc. Syntaxalsoattemptstodescribehowtheseelementsfunction in the sentence,i.e.,the function thattheyperform in the sentence. Forexample,thenounphrase“thestudent”has differentfunctionsinthefollowingsentences: a)Thestudentiswritinganewplay. b)Theteachergavethestudentanewplay. Insentencea),thestudentfunctionsasthesubjectofthe sentencewhileinsentenceb),itfunctionsasindirectobject.
- Semantics.Itdealswiththelevelofmeaninginlanguage.It attemptstoanalyzethestructureofmeaninginalanguage, e.g.,how wordsarerelatedinmeaning;itattemptstoshow these inter-relationships through forming ‘categories’. Semanticsaccountsforbothwordandsentencemeaning.
- Pragmatics.Itdealswiththecontextualaspectsofmeaningin particularsituations.Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowlanguage isusedinrealcommunication.Asdistinctfrom thestudyof sentences, pragmatics considers utterances – those sentenceswhichareactuallyutteredorsaidbyspeakersofa language.
- Discourse.Itisthestudyofchunksoflanguagewhichare biggerthanasinglesentence.Atthislevel,inter-sententiallinks thatform aconnectedorcohesivetextareanalyzed.Theunit oflanguagestudiedindiscourseandpragmaticsmaybean utteranceinanexchangeoratextinwrittenform. Phonology: 1 .Phonemeisadistinctive,contrastedsoundunit,e.g./m /,/æ/, /n/.Thesedistinctsoundsenterintocombinationwithother soundstoform words,e.g.,/mæn/‘man’. Phonemeisthesmallestunitofsoundofanylanguagethat causesadifferenceinmeaning.Itisaphonesegmentthathas a contrastive status. The basic test for a sound’s distinctivenessiscalledaminimalpairtest.A minimalpair consistsoftwoformswithdistinctmeaningthatdifferbyonly onesegmentfoundinthesamepositionineachform.For example,[sɪp]‘sip’and[zɪp]‘zip’form aminimalpairandshow thatthesounds[s]and[z]contrastinEnglishbecausethey causethedifferenceinmeaningbetweenthewords‘sip’and ‘zip’;hence,theyareseparatephonemes-/s/and/z/.
2 .Allophonesarevariantsorotherwaysofproducingaphoneme. They are phonetically similarand are frequently found in complementary distribution. For example,the systematic variationsof/t/are: The/t/in topisaspirated[th ];the/t/in stopisreleased[t];the /t/in potisunreleased[t^7 ]. 3 .Soundsarecategorizedintotwomajorclasses:vowelsand consonants. 4 .Consonantsounds are produced with some restriction or closureinthevocaltractastheairfrom thelungsispushed throughtheglottisoutthemouth.Theairflowiseitherblocked momentarilyorrestrictedsomuchthatnoiseisproducedasair flowspasttheconstriction.Consonantsaredescribedinterms of physicaldimensions:place of articulation,manner of articulation,voicing,asshowninFigure 1.
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Stops voiceless p t k voiced b d g Fricatives voiceless f θ s š h voiced v ð z ž Affricates voiceless č voiced ǰ Nasals voiceless voiced m n ŋ Liquids voiceless voiced l r Glides voiceless Source:Parker,F.&K^ v.oRiilceye.d( 19 94 ). Lwing^ uisticsforNon-Linguyists.Boston:Allynand Bacon. FIGURE 1 .ConsonantPhonemesofEnglish PlaceofArticulation.Foranyarticulationcorrespondingtoone oftheseconsonantphonemes,thevocaltractisconstrictedatoneof thefollowingpoints. (a)Bilabial(from bi‘two’+ labial‘lips’).Theprimaryconstriction isatthe lips(/p,b,m,w/). (b)Labiodental(from labio‘lip’+ dental‘teeth’).Theprimary constriction
oneperspective/p/and/b/arenotreallyunitsinthemselves,but rathereachisbundleoffeaturevalues,asfollows.
+bilabial +bilabial /p/ = +stop /b/ = +stop −voice +voice 5 .Vowelsareproducedwithlittleobstructioninthevocaltract andaregenerallyvoiced.Theyaredescribedintermsofthe following physicaldimensions:tongue height,frontness,lip rounding,tenseness.Differentparts ofthe tongue maybe raised orlowered.Thelipsmaybe spread orpursed.The passagethroughwhichtheairtravels,however,isnevernarrow astoobstructthefreeflowoftheairstream. Vowelsoundscarrypitchandloudness;onecansingvowels. Theymaybelongorshort.
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Low Source:Parker,F.&K.Riley.( 1994 ). LinguisticsforNon-Linguists.Boston:AllynandBacon. Figure 2 .VowelPhonemesofEnglish 6 .Suprasegmentalsareprosodicpropertiesthatform partofthe makeupofsoundsnomatterwhattheirplaceormannerof articulationis.Thesepropertiesarepitch,intonation,stress, andjuncture.Theyarevariationsinintensity,pitch,andtiming. 7 .Stressisapropertyofasyllableratherthanasegment.Itisa coverterm foracombinedeffectofpitch,loudnessandlength-
- -theresultofwhichisvowelprominence;hence,itreferstothe relativeprominenceofsyllables.Thesyllablethatreceivesthe mostprominentstressisreferredtoasprimarystress.To produceastressedsyllable,onemaychangethepitch(usually byraisingit),makethesyllablelouder,ormakeitlonger. e.g. 2 1 2 1 1 2 fundamental introductory secondary 8 .Pitchistheauditorypropertyofasoundthatenablesusto placeitonascalethatrangesfrom lowtohigh. 9 .Intonation istheriseand fallofpitch which maycontrast meanings of sentences.The pitch movement in spoken utterances is notonly related to differences in the word meaning,butserves to convey information ofa broadly meaningfulnaturesuchascompletenessorincompletenessof anutterance.Intonationreferstothepitchcontoursasthey occurinphrasesandsentences. InEnglish,thestatement‘ Marianisalinguist’endswithafallin pitchwhileasaquestion,‘ Marianisalinguist?’thepitchgoes up.
- Juncturereferstothepausesorbreaksbetweensyllables. Itreferstothetransitionbetweensounds.Thelackofanyreal break between syllables ofwords is referred to as close juncture;plusjunctureoropenjunctureisusedtodescribea breakorpausebetweensyllablesinthesamewordoradjacent word;e.g. nitratevs. nightrate; whytryvs. whiterye; blackbird vs. blackbird Morphology: 1 .Morphemeisashortsegmentoflanguagethatmeetsthree criteria:
6 .Derivationalmorphemes are those thatare added to root morphemesorstemstoderivenewwords.Theyusuallychange theform classofthewordstowhichtheyareattached;theyare open-ended,thatis,therearepotentiallyinfinitenumberof them;e.g. actual+{-ize} actualize; help+{-ful} helpful;{un
- }+ lucky unlucky. 7 .Word–Formationprocesses Derivation.Thisinvolvestheadditionofaderivationalaffix, changing thesyntacticcategoryoftheitem to whichitis attached(e.g., discern(V) discernment(N); woman(N) womanly(Adj)). Category Extension. This involves the extension of a morphemefrom onesyntacticcategorytoanother(e.g., house (N) house(V); fast(Adj) fast(Adv)) Compounding.Thisinvolvescreatinganewwordbycombining twofreemorphemes(e.g., sunset;drugstore). RootCreation.Itisabrandnewwordbasedonnopre-existing morphemes(e.g., Colgate;Xerox). ClippedForm.Itisashortenedform ofapre-existingforms (e.g., gym <gymnasium;mike<microphone). Blend.Itisacombinationofpartsoftwopre-existingforms (e.g., smog<smoke+fog;motel<motor+hotel). Acronym.Itisawordformedfrom thefirstletter(s)ofeach wordinaphrase(e.g., NASA<NationalAeronauticsandSpace Administration;SARS<SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome). Abbreviation.Itisawordformedfrom the namesofthefirst lettersoftheprominentsyllablesofaword(e.g., TV<television) orofwords in a phrase (e.g., FBI< FederalBureau of Investigation). ProperName.Thisprocessformsawordfrom apropername (e.g., hamburger<Hamburg (Germany);sandwich <Earlof Sandwich). FolkEtymology.Thisprocessformsawordbysubstitutinga commonnativeform foranexotic(oftenforeign)form (e.g., cockroach<Spanish cucuracha‘woodlouse’). BackFormation.Thisprocessformsawordbyremovingwhat ismistakenforanaffix(e.g. edit< editor;beg<beggar). 8 .MorphophonemicProcesses Thereareprocessesthatproduceagreatdealoflinguistic
variability:assimilation,dissimilation,deletion,epenthesis, metathesis. Assimilationisaprocessthatresultsfrom asoundbecoming morelikeanothernearbysoundintermsofoneormoreofits phoneticcharacteristics;aprocessinwhichsegmentstakeon the characteristics ofneighboring sounds;e.g.probable – improbable; potent - impotent; separable – inseparable; sensitive–insensitive Dissimilationisaprocessthatresultsintwosoundsbecoming lessalikeinarticulatoryoracousticterms;aprocessinwhich unitswhichoccurinsomecontextsare‘lost’inothers;e.g. ‘ libary’insteadof‘library,’‘ govenor’for‘governor’ Deletionisaprocessthatremovesasegmentfrom certain phoneticcontexts.Itoccursin everydayrapid speech;e.g. [blaɪnmæn]‘blindman’ Epenthesisisaprocessthatinsertsasyllableoranonsyllabic segmentwithinanexistingstringofsegment;e.g.[plæntɪd] ‘planted’ Metathesisisaprocessthatreordersorreversesasequence ofsegments;itoccurswhentwosegmentsinaseriesswitch places,e.g.ask aks;ruler lurer;violet viloyet SyntacticStructures 1 .StructureofPredicationhastwocomponents:asubjectanda predicate;e.g. theseagullflies, thewaterlevelroseabruptly, thetrialhasbegun 2 .StructureofComplementationhastwobasiccomponents:a verbal elementandacomplement;e.g.disturbedthe class, rendered service,be conscientious 3 .StructureofModificationhastwocomponents:aheadword andamodifier,whosemeaningservesto broaden,qualify, select,change,ordescribe,orinsomewayaffectthemeaning ofthe head word;e.g. responsible officers, trusted friend, impartiallyconducted
- Structure of Coordination has two basic components: equivalentgrammaticalunitsandjoinedoftenbutnotalways byacoordinatingconjunction;e.g. breadandbutter, peacenot war, neitherextrovertnorintrovert Semantics 1 .Lexicalambiguityreferstoacharacteristicofawordthathas morethanonesense,e.g.theEnglishword flyisambiguous becauseithasmorethanonemeaning:‘aninsect,’‘azipper
pronouns );here,there,right,left,(expressionsofplace );this, that,those,these(demonstratives );now,yesterday,today,last year(timeexpressions ). 10 .Entailmentisaproposition(expressedinasentence)that followsnecessarilyfrom anothersentence.Asentenceentails anotherifthemeaningofthefirst includesthemeaningofthe second;it is also called paraphrase.For example,the sentence,‘ Raulhadafatalaccident’entailsthat‘ Rauldied’ sinceitisimpossibletofigureinafatalaccidentwithoutloss oflife.Semanticallyspeaking, fatalmeans[-life]while died alsomeans[-life]. 11 .Presupposition refers to a proposition (expressed in a sentence)thatisassumedtobetrueinordertojudgethe truthorfalsityofanothersentence.Italsoreferstothetruth relationbetweentwosentences;onesentencepresupposes anotherifthefalsityofthesecondrendersthefirstwithouta truthvalue;e.g.Thesentence‘ TheKingofCanadaisdead.’ presupposesthat‘ Thereexists(is)aKingofCanada.’Thefirst sentencepresupposesthesecondsentencebecauseifthe secondsentenceisfalse,thenthefirstsentencehasnotruth value. Pragmatics
- Speechacttheory. Everyutteranceofspeechconstitutes some sort of act (promising,apologizing,threatening, warning,etc.).Everyspeechactconsistsofthreeseparate acts: Locutionary force an actof saying something;itis a descriptionofwhataspeakersays, e.g.,Ipromisetoreturn yourbooktomorrow. Illocutionaryact/forceistheactofdoingsomething;itis whatthespeakerintendstodobyutteringasentence,e.g.,by saying“ Ipromisetoreturnyourbooktomorrow,”thespeaker hasmadean actofpromising. Perlocutionaryactisanactofaffectingsomeone(i.e.,the listener);itistheeffectonthehearerofwhataspeakersays, e.g.,bysaying “Iwillreturnyourbook tomorrow,”thehearer mayfeelhappyorrelievedthats/hewillgetthebookback 2 .Categories of Illocutionary Acts. These are categories proposed byJohnSearleto group togethercloselyrelated intentionsforsayingsomething. Declaration.Adeclarationisanutteranceusedtochangethe statusofsomeentity–forexample, Foul!utteredbyareferee atabasketballgame.Thisclassincludesactsofappointing, naming,resigning,baptizing,surrendering,excommunicating, arresting,andsoon.
Representative.A representative is an utterance used to describesomestateofaffairs– forexample, Recessionwill worseninEuropeinthenextfiveyears.Thisclassincludes acts ofstating,asserting,denying,confessing,admitting, notifying,concluding,predicting,andsoon. Commissive.Acommissiveisanutteranceusedtocommit thespeakertodosomething–forexample, I’llmeetyouat thelibraryat 10 : 00 a.m.Thisclassincludesactsofpromising, vowing,volunteering,offering,guaranteeing,pledging,betting, andsoon. Directive.Adirectiveisanutteranceusedtotrytogetthe hearertodosomething–forexample, Reviewthoroughlyfor theexams.Thisclassincludesactsofrequesting,ordering, forbidding, warning, advising, suggesting, insisting, recommending,andsoon. Expressive.Anexpressiveisanutteranceusedtoexpressthe emotionalstateofthespeaker–forexample, Congratulations fortopping the barexam!.This class includes acts of apologizing,thanking,congratulating,condoling,welcoming, deploring,objecting,andsoon. Question.Aquestionisanutteranceusedtogetthehearerto provideinformation–forexample, Whowonthepresidential election?Thisclassincludesactsofasking,inquiring,andso on.(Note:Searle treated questions as a subcategory of directives;however,itis more usefulto treatthem as a separatecategory.) 3 .ConversationalMaxims are rules thatare observed when communicationtakesplaceinasituationwherepeopleareco- operative.Whenpeoplecommunicate,theyassumethatthe otherpersonwillbecooperativeandtheythemselveswishto cooperate. Inthe“CooperativePrinciple,”thefollowingmaximsorrules governoralinteractions: Maxim ofquantity–aparticipant’scontributionshouldbeas informativeaspossible– “Givetheright amountofinformation,neitherless nor morethanwhatisrequired.” e.g. A:Areyouattendingtheseminar? B:Yes,Iam. Maxim ofquality–aparticipantshouldnotsaythatwhichis false orthatwhich the participantlacks evidence - “Make yourcontribution such thatitistrue;donotsaywhatyouknow is falseorforwhichyoudonothaveadequate
