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Sex and Violence in the Media
Catharsis Theory
suggests that rather than be harmful, on society. people, in course of daily life, build up frustrations. Vicarious participation in others' aggressions help release those tensions. In other words, every day we build up frustrations. Without a release valve we risk the chance of becoming violent, or at least aggressive. says by watching violence we are less likely to be violent as we release the tension. VIOLENCE IN MEDIA ACTUALLY HAS A POSITIVE EFFECT CENTRAL ASSUMPTION —> CATHARSIS THEORIST
Aggressive Cues Theory
Then there is the opposite view, that exposure to aggressive stimuli = increases physiological & emotional arousal = increases probability of violence. point out that watching violence does not mean we'll always be more aggressive or violent, but it increases the chances. How the violence is presented will have an impact on us, too. If we can relate to the protagonist committing the violence, or it's presented in a justifiable way, it can lead to aggressive behavior. If something is shown or portrayed in the media, it will get normalized and accepted. Example: steelworkers drink & brawl after work everyday and a bratty kid gets spanked in a media portrayal VIOLENCE DOES HAVE AN IMPACT. CENTRAL ASSUMPTION —> AGGRESSIVE CUES THEORIST OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THEORIST
Observational Learning Theory
Watching violent media portrayals will teach you new ways to be violent. Examples: Watching a morbid crime movie where the criminal makes the fatal mistake you catch yourself. saying, "If I ever committed a murder I would not make THAT mistake?" OR walking down a dark alley and someone steps out in front of you and makes a threatening gesture. So you think of some kung fu/karate moves you might make to defend yourself. PEOPLE CAN LEARN BY OBSERVING AGRESSION, AND UNDER SOME CONDITIONS, MODEL IT'S BEHAVIOR. says that not only would the media violence increase the probability of the viewer committing an aggression or violence, it teaches the viewer how to do it. They also pointed out that people won't automatically go out and mimic the violent act, but store the information away in the brain.
Reinforcement Theory
media portrayals reinforce established behaviors viewers bring with them to the media situation. Reinforcement Theory DEBUNKS THE FIRST THREE THEORIES. Violent portrayals increase aggression and violence likelihood for those who accept violence as normal, while it decreases for those raised to believe violence is bad, reinforcing prior beliefs. would say that to predict an outcome, consider the viewer's background, cultural norms, and social roles. If a person grew up in a crime-ridden neighborhood, violent portrayals are more likely to lead to violence, HIGHLIGHTING SELECTIVE PERCEPTION. You are going to run across the gentle old man who everyone believed would never hurt a fly who whacks his family into a thousand pieces one day. Or you are going to find the gang member who one day recognizes the futility of violence and turns to the priesthood. CENTRAL ASSUMPTION —> REINFORCEMENT THEORIST EXEMPTION TO THE RULE —>
Sexism in Advertising
- Media shows women as sexual objects to attract the attention of potential customers.
- The objectification of men as sexual beings is also becoming increasingly common in advertising.
Cultivation Theory
Rather than predict that we will turn to or from violence, it the symbolic world of media, particularly TV, shapes and maintains audience's conception of the real world. In other words, it creates fantasy world that is mean spirited and danagerous. It also creates stereotypes of dominant/weak folk in society. Example: Imagine a bank robber who is big and mean. Is our imaginary bank robber of certain race? Are all people that look like this bank robber actually mean back robbers? OR when people starts to show signs of age with gray hair and wrinkles around your eyes. If you are a. man in the media, that is good and shows maturing. If you are a woman, it's bad and shows that you are old and less vital. CENTRAL ASSUMPTION —> LOOKS AT HOW WE'LL REACT TO THE VIOLENCE. The media portrays a mean world with rampant neighborhood crime, leading some viewers to believe it's unsafe to leave their homes or apartments and become shut-ins. Broadcast Media Ethics “the embodiment of all principles of morality and refinement that should govern the conduct of every broadcast journalist”
Constitutional Rights & Ethical Practices - “Our rights end… Where the rights of others begin”
The State & Broadcast Journalists
Freedom of the press, speech and expression is limited by the right of the State to survive thus, National Security is an inherent limitation on the said Constitutional rights.
Basis for State Regulation (Broadcast Media)
Broadcast Journalist & Private Persons
Every person has the right to LIFE, LIBERTY, PROPERTY & THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS Human Rights of persons include the rights to PRIVACY, to be treated with dignity, the rights against harassment & exploitation, and a JUST & HUMANE EXISTENCE. There are also rights of special categories of persons such as women, children & Persons With Disabilities
Summary of Limitations
Use of a natural resource, a part of the national patrimony. Use of airwaves should be utilized for the State's interests, welfare & improvement of the life of Filipinos. Right of the State to survive – National Security Individual and Human Rights - Laws Social Norms The KBP Code of Ethics The essence of the KBP code of ethics (also known as the broadcast code ) is to ensure that the power of broadcast media is used responsibly through self-regulation. verification of news sources & handling of unverified news.
- Rationale is “absence of bias” and respect for the rights of others.
- Pending legislation -> The Senate/Congress is drafting legislation to legislate the right to respond, requiring journalists to adhere to ethical standards for self-regulation.
- Public personalities vis-à-vis private individuals
- Always deal with issues and not personalities
- Sensationalism must be avoided
- Draw the line between coverage of news and creating or participating in the news Respect for Privacy Crime Scenes and Crisis Situation Right to Respond
MUST ALWAYS BE TRUE AND ACCURATE:
Responsibility vs. Anarchy Spreading rumors is an example of “terrorism, of how you can kill a person with your tongue.” This is even more true for journalists because their voice can reach everyone and this is a very powerful weapon. “Journalism based on gossip or rumors is a form of terrorism” “THE POWER OF BROADCAST MEDIA TO CREATE & DESTROY FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN VALUES COMES WITH GREAT RESPONSIBILITY. THOSE WHO CONTROL SUCH MEDIA ARE ACCOUNTABLE FOR ITS CONSEQUENCES." WAR CRIMES TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA - 1994 Basic Guidelines Observe that in all media coverage involving children their best interest shall be the paramount concern and that media should take into consideration the present, as well as the long-term implications of any publicity on the child’s recovery and rehabilitation. The right to privacy of children must always be respected. Since undue publicity or wrong labeling can cause harm to them, children who are victims of abuse or in conflict with the law shall not be directly or indirectly identified. Any information that might cause them to be identified shall not be aired. Women Media should treat women with respect and dignity in matters concerning them Gender sensitivity should be observed at all times Women should be accorded their right to Equal Opportunity Person With Disabilities Use of correct/proper terms PWDs should not be ridiculed The nature of their disabilities should not be used in a derogatory manner They should be accorded dignity State Policy The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous and social institution. The natural and primary right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic efficiency and the development of moral character shall receive the support of the Government. Constitutional Basis Principles Children have an absolute right to privacy. The highest ethical and professional standards in reporting and covering cases of children must be observed such that in all publicity concerning children, the best interests of the child shall be the primary concern. The child’s dignity must be respected at all times. Children have the right to be heard. Access to media by children should be encouraged. Journalistic activity which touches on the lives and welfare of children must be carried out with sensitivity and appreciation of the vulnerable situation of children, so that children are not re-victimized or retraumatized. On-air Language Vulgar, obscene, or indecent language is prohibited Language tending to incite violence, sedition or rebellion is prohibited Name-calling and personal insults are prohibited
G L O B A L F L O W O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N
Globalization
process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of massively increased trade and cultural exchange. increased the production of goods and services. The biggest companies are no longer national firms but multinational corporations with subsidiaries in many countries. has been taking place for hundreds of years, but has speeded up enormously over the last half-century. MANFRED STEGER:
Nation–State & Economic Globalization
Neo - Liberals claim that nation –states have lost an important element of economic sovereignty “Buy Taiwan, hold Italy and sell France”, Thomas Friedman compared countries to individual stocks. Buy Taiwan -> for the materials Hold Italy -> production place Sell France -> sell it to France The major players of global economy are the transnational corporations or TNCs
Transnational Corporation.
— e constantly evolving as a result of outsourcing activity Example : AMERICAN CAR (WTO) KOREA – assembly JAPAN – components & advanced technology GERMANY – design TAIWAN & SINGAPORE – minor parts UK – advertising and marketing services IRELAND/ BARBADOS – data process
Result of Globalization
increased international trade a company operating in more than one country greater dependence on the global economy freer movement of capital, goods, and services recognition of companies such as McDonalds and Starbucks
- Although globalization is probably helping to create more wealth in developing countries - it is not helping to close the gap between the world's poorest countries and the world's richest.
Culture and Globalization
"Global village” Communications technology is “shrinking” our world “Cultural imperialism” “Globalization refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and worldspace”
Global Imaginary & Global Village
Media have linked the globe with stories, images, myths and metaphors. Global Imaginary - the globe itself as imagined community. Global Village - has brought no collective harmony or peace ✓ Marshall McLuhan - predicted that media & globalization have connected the world. ✓ Media have connected the world in ways that create a global village.
Attributes of GlobalizationIs the mass media a positive force in globalization?
- McLuhan (1962) used the term global village. What does this mean? The argument for….
- Mass media is a force for positive change in the world.
- Mass media breaks down barriers of understanding.
- Can we now have ‘real world’ convos in the digital sphere that would have otherwise not taken place?
- Flew (2002) suggests the media, through globalization, has created a global popular culture. What is this?
- Through TV, satellite, advertising and the internet, global corporations such as Starbucks, have spread a globally identifiable culture.
- Global culture or mass culture is everyday mass media designed for mass consumption e.g. tabloid newspapers, MTV, Hollywood films. •The Pluralist approach to the mass media. What is this?
- Argues media, like society, has become more diverse; offers greater variety & choice than ever before.
- Consumers are in control and have the benefit of huge choice in their media consumption – widening their cultural horizons and giving them access to high culture. What is this? High culture is set apart from mass culture, often aimed at middle and upper-class audiences. E.g. Intellectual literature, opera, documentaries.
- How could we be critical of the mass media’s role in globalization? Why does this matter? MARXIST CRITIQUE, CULTURAL IMPERIALISM? or MEDIA IMPERIALISM? What is this?
- Fenton (1999) argues that global culture has led to the westernization of other cultures. The mass media forces western cultural values (especially American) on nonwestern countries.
- Mass media is damaging other cultures & promotes cultural homogenization, where everything is the same.
- Karl Marx, a 19th century political and economic philosopher argued that this expansion of markets and the greater flow of goods and services would be the form capitalist society would take as it developed. He saw these stages through an economic lens; those of higher productive capabilities naturally will eliminate those with less.
- Marx argued that world civilization has become finance-driven due to debt-driven vehicles, marking the end of U.S. world domination. The U.S. controls world banking and non-banking systems, pegged to the dollar. Despite its weakness, the dollar remains the preferred currency for other nations. The U.S. economy's health is crucial for world civilization's financial stability, indicating depression in developing countries.
- Corporate entities a threat to democracy.
- Lack of regulation – the internet is the wild west of information.
- Mass audiences has led to the ‘dumbing down’ of content, there is actually less consumer choice.
- Increased social isolation. Virtuality and a loss of social capital (real human networks of support in communities).
- Digital divide whereby those who don’t have access to the mass media miss out, creating global inequalities. OTHER CRITICISMS OF THE MASS MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION
Media Flows
— Concept developed by a series of empirical studies in the 1970s and 80s. The research claimed the existence of unbalanced, unidirectional flows of TV programs and foreign news from the “center” to the “periphery” (Kaarle, Nordnstreng & Tapio Varis, 1974)
Media Imperialism
Glocalization / Hybridity:
Counter Arguments / Concepts
- Developed within a broader analysis of cultural imperialism and dependency theories. Oliver Boyd-Barret defined it as “the process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution of content of the media in any country are singly or together subject to substantial external pressures from the media interests of any other country or countries without proportionate reciprocation of influence by the country so affected
US Film Imports % EU Media Policies and Structures.
- Television without boarders
- Support for film industry
- Challenges
- Hollywood hegemony
- Language
- Nationalism
- Regionalism
- countries once thought as major “clients” of media imperialism such as Mexico, Canada, Brazil have successfully exported their programs & personnel into the “Centre”. Mexico (Televisa Group), Brazil (TV Globo), Canada (CanWest) now export TV programmes & music to the countries in the world.
- there's now greater exchange of news, TV programs, print media, music between regions, e.g. DSTV (South Africa), Nollywood (Nigeria), Bollywood (India), Star TV (HK), Al Jazeera (Qatar), EuroNews (EU).
- local programs remain popular and attract large audiences.
- popularized by British sociologist Roland Robertson (1990) & developed by Zygmunt Bauman. This is characterized by the global-local interaction, by cultural fusion as a result of adaptation of Western media genres to suit local cultures & languages. Example, US generic models (e.g. soaps, sitcoms, action movies) have invited domestic imitation based on the country´s cultural & social realities. Contra-flows: Regionalism: Localization: community media: from the margins to the cutting edge
- Address the digital divide: access, voice for the voiceless
- Platform/spaces for civic engagement and expression
- Internal flows of communication (devcom: endogenous community, local culture, indigenous knowledge etc) Internet as alternative media enabling reversal of flows.
Dimensions of Global Flow
Another influential study on global flows is one developed by Arjun Appadurai in the early 1990s. He identified 5 different dimensions of global flows:
- Ethnoscapes - landscape of people who constitute our shifting world, e.g tourists, immigrants, refugees,
- Technscapes - the fluidity of technology (similar to thenetwork society concept)
- Finascapes- movement of currency markets and money, across boundaries
- Mediascapes - distribution of electronic capabilities to produce & disseminate news
- Ideascapes- movement of political ideas and images, e.g.“freedom” “rights” “democracy”. - Alternative Media:
