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Ethical Frameworks and Moral
Development
Ethics vs Morality
Ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental issues of practical decision-making. Its major concerns are the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged as right or wrong. Ethics is concerned with knowing what is right and wrong.
The term "ethics" is derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means character. Ethics deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to human behavior.
Aims of Ethics
Addresses questions about morality Identifies the standards of making moral judgments Clarifies the meaning of moral judgments Seeks to understand the basis of morals, how they develop, and how they are and should be followed
Branches of Ethics
Descriptive ethics Normative ethics Meta-ethics Applied ethics
Ethical Frameworks/Theories
Virtue ethics Deontological ethics Teleological ethics
At a more fundamental level, ethics is the method by which we categorize our values and pursue them. It studies what ought to be done and answers the question, "Do we pursue our own happiness, or do we sacrifice ourselves to a greater cause?"
According to Socrates, people will naturally do what is good, provided that they know what is right, and that evil or bad actions are purely the result of ignorance.
Morality
Morality refers to the extent to which an action is considered right or wrong. It concerns the recognition of the inherent values of people (culture and religion), a value that is not reducible to how others benefit us.
Moral Standards
Refers to norms (rules and values) about the types of actions that are morally acceptable. These are the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good.
Non-Moral Standards
Refers to norms that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations, such as etiquette, fashion standards, rules in a game, house rules, and legal statutes. A non-moral act or action is not subject to moral judgment because morality is not taken into consideration (e.g., the clothes you wear).
Immoral Standards
Describes a person or behavior that conscientiously goes against accepted morals or the proper ideas and beliefs about how to behave in a way that is considered right and good by most people. It connotes the intent or evilness or wrongdoing.
Unmoral Standards
Means that there is no moral perception and not influenced or guided by moral considerations. Unmoral is used to describe non-human or inanimate things incapable of understanding right and wrong (e.g., hurricanes and machines).
Amoral Standards
Defined as having or showing no concern about whether behavior is morally right or wrong - compendiously "without morals" (e.g., an infant who is unlearned in what is right and wrong, and people with mental illness).
Importance of Morals/Rules
Regulate unwanted or harmful behavior and encourage wanted or beneficial behavior in society. Dictated by the values of the culture regarding what is viewed as acceptable or unacceptable for individuals in a society.
Moral Experience
Moral experience is an experience of moral value, where one's moral consciousness is called to make a moral response. Moral experience can be an emotion, an active or passive experience, or any experience that leaves an impression or memory, contributing to the formation of one's personality.
Key Features of Moral Experience
Moral Consciousness : The arousal of moral consciousness can result in the occurrence of moral experience, or vice versa. Moral Values : Refers to the quality of something being good or bad, right or wrong, and just or unjust. Moral values demand a response, involve moral responsibility, and define both the action and the human agent. Moral Definitions : We are either drawn towards an action because of the good we sense in it, or we sense the good because of our own value or "goodness" within us. Continuous Process : Every moral situation calls for rational deliberation and affirmation of our humanity, as there is no universal formula to solve every moral dilemma. Moral Ideals : Pertain to what are believed to constitute a life worthy of humans, which are products of generations of shaping via our tradition and summoned by experience. Action-oriented : In the face of a moral situation, we feel compelled to respond personally and right away, choosing what is good and being good in thought and action.
Moral Principles
Moral principles are associated with a fixed set of rules that may ignore the complexities of the situation and fail to adapt one's behavior to changing circumstances. Moral principles can be regarded as statements that pick out the factors of situations that can be appealed to as moral reasons. The correctness of universal moral principles is taken as a condition of the correctness of moral judgments, as ultimate moral principles and their correctness are a necessary condition for the correctness of all other moral judgments.
Moral Dilemmas
Moral dilemmas are experiences where an agent is confused about the right decision to make because there are several competing values that are seemingly equally important and urgent. Personal dilemmas are extremely difficult situations for someone to handle, which can be moral or non-moral. Moral dilemmas occur when one moral reason conflicts with another, or when moral reasons normally conflict with religious or aesthetic reasons.
Moral Actions
For an action to be morally good, three determinants must be complete: the object of the act, the intention of the act, and the circumstances of the act. A lack in any of these determinants will, at least in a qualified way, make the morality of the act to be bad.
Moral Development
Moral development is an important part of the socialization process, as it prevents people from acting on unchecked urges and instead considers what is right for society and good for others.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Pre-conventional Level (Birth-9 years old) : Morality is externally controlled, and right or wrong is based on punishment and reward, or on satisfying one's own needs. Conventional Level (9-13 years old) : Individuals continue to follow rules to ensure positive interpersonal relationships and social order, seeking the approval of society or others. Post-conventional Level (13 years old-onwards) : Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values, with flexibility in accepting rules and the development of one's own ethical principles.
Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development
Gilligan's theory, developed as a critique of Kohlberg's, focuses on the importance of relationships in the system of rules. The levels of moral development in Gilligan's theory are similar to Kohlberg's, but with a greater emphasis on the role of relationships and the consideration of the needs of self and others.
What can you do if you are facing a moral
dilemma?
Use your reason instead of emotion
When facing a moral dilemma, it is important to use reason rather than emotion to guide your decision-making process. Emotions can cloud our judgment and lead us to make impulsive choices that may not be the most ethical.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of each
decision
Carefully consider the potential consequences of each possible course of action. Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each decision to
ARISTOTLE'S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS
Aristotle believed that human action is directed towards the pursuit of the concept of Eudaemonia (supreme happiness), which can be achieved through Phronesis (practical wisdom) or Arête (virtue).
Aristotle saw virtues as dispositions that allow one to effectively perform their proper function in similar situations, creating habits of behaving in certain ways. To be a good person, one must strive to be the best at the performance of various tasks, which is the result of repeated action and correction of conduct.
Doctrine of the Mean/Golden Mean
Aristotle believed that moral behavior is the balance between the vices of virtues (deficiency and excess), as well as between pleasure (excess) and pain (deficiency). For example, the virtue of generosity lies between the vices of stinginess (deficiency) and extravagance (excess).
Virtues of Thought
Aristotle identified three key virtues of thought: wisdom, intelligence, and comprehension.
MODULE 4: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS:
DEONTOLOGY (IMMANUEL KANT)
DEONTOLOGY (DUTY ETHICS)
Deontology is concerned with the adherence to certain rules or duties. The morality of an action is based on whether it is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than on the consequences of the action.
IMMANUEL KANT'S DUTY-BASED ETHICS
Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws (e.g., "Don't lie," "Don't steal") that all human beings must honor and be obligated to do as a matter of duty.
Categorical Imperatives
Kant proposed the "Categorical Imperative" as the supreme principle of morality. This consists of two key formulations:
The Universalizability Principle: Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action should become a universal law. The Formula of Humanity: Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means.
Perfect Duties and Imperfect Duties
Kant distinguished between: - Perfect Duties: Duties that do not allow exceptions and are universal, such as the duty not to lie. - Imperfect Duties: Duties that do not always need to be followed in one way or all the time, such as the duty to give to charity.
MODULE 5: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS:
CONSEQUENTIALISM (JEREMY BENTHAM
AND JOHN STUART MILL)
DEONTOLOGY (IMMANUEL KANT)
Concerned with the adherence to certain rules or duties. Morality of an action should be based on whether that action is right or wrong under a series of rules. Moral agents must honor human rights and meet moral obligations (moral laws) even at the cost of an optimal outcome. The Categorical Imperative is the supreme principle of morality, consisting of the Universalizability Principle and the Formula of Humanity. A good person is someone who always does their duty because it is their duty, even if they do not enjoy it.
LIMITATIONS
An act that is not morally good can lead to something good. Categorical Imperatives tell what one cannot do, but do not provide a positive account of ethics. There are maxims or moral laws that are relative and cannot be universalized. There are conflicting duties that can clash. There are no guidelines as to how to resolve conflicts between duties.
Consequentialism (Bentham and Mill)
Major Points
The rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its outcomes/ consequences, i.e., if it brings a good end or intrinsic value. Bentham's Principle of Utility believes that an action should promote the greatest amount of pleasure or least amount of pain. Pleasure is based on quantity (Act Utilitarianism). Mill's Greatest Happiness Principle believes that an action should promote the achievement of happiness for the greatest number of people. Happiness is based on quality (Rule Utilitarianism).
Right Speech: Use speech compassionately. Right Action: Using ethical conduct to manifest compassion. Right Livelihood: Making a living through ethical and non-harmful means. Right Effort: Cultivating wholesome qualities and releasing unwholesome qualities. Right Mindfulness: Body-mind awareness. Right Concentration: Meditation as a dedicated, concentrated practice.
Confucianism
The way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese.
A code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act according to his/her relationship with other people. The identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures. Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life. The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a 'subdued self' wherein personal needs are repressed for the good of many, making Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society.
Islam
Derived from the word 'salam' which means peace or surrender, whereas 'Islam' means the perfect peace out of total surrender to Allah (God).
Pillars
Shahada: Obligation to profess the faith. Salah: Obligation to pray. Zakat: Obligation to give alms. Soum: Obligation to fast.
Hajj: Obligation to do pilgrimage to Mecca.
Morality in Islam encompasses the concept of righteousness, good character, and the body of moral qualities and virtues prescribed in Islamic religious texts.
The principle and fundamental purpose of Islamic morality is love, love for God and love for God's creatures.
Hinduism
The world's oldest religion, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years and the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.
Atman
The soul's state of suffering because of its attachments to the senses or to the pleasures of the flesh. This makes the Atman a slave of Maye (magic or Illusion). Upanishads are teachings that would relinquish the Atman from its enslavement, for they allow the unification with the Universal Essence (Brahman). Hindus believe that a righteous life is necessary towards Atman's union with the Brahman, which will be achieved through the Samsara (Reincarnation) for the purpose of purification.
Upanishads
Literally means 'sitting down near' or 'sitting close to' and implies listening closely to the mystic doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. It also means 'Brahma-knowledge' by which ignorance is annihilated.
Nature of Death
Metaphysical
Death is an event or phenomenon. This provides justifications for providing treatments or medical services to a critically ill person; when a person is considered dead, by virtue of these approaches, medical practitioners and families of the patient could make necessary decisions regarding the situation of the patient, such as engaging in physician-assisted death. Cardiopulmonary: A person is considered dead when the heart and lungs have irreversibly ceased to function. Whole-Brain: A human person is considered dead when their entire brain has irreversibly ceased to function. They are no longer conscious and no longer breathing on their own. A person whose brain has ceased to function but is still breathing through life-support is referred to as brain-dead. Higher-Brain: A human person is considered dead when their upper brain (cerebrum and cerebellum) has irreversibly ceased to function, even if their lower brain (brainstem) continues to function, like persons in a persistent vegetative state and permanent coma. The upper brain controls voluntary muscle movements, while the lower brain controls life processes like respiration.
help one recognize their inauthentic existence and empower them to make their own choices.
Bioethics
Definition and Scope
Bioethics refers to the ethical implications and applications of the health- related life sciences. It involves the analysis of ethical issues raised by life sciences, the application of technology and medicine, and health policies.
Common Bioethical Dilemmas
End of Life Treatment Organ Trafficking Genetic Modification Access to Medicine and Health Services Assisted Procreation Human Cloning Biotechnology
Principles in Bioethics
Principle of Non-Maleficence and Beneficence
This principle follows a utilitarian approach, focusing on not causing pain or harm to the person and conducting a harm-benefit analysis. It promotes patient welfare, as medical personnel have the moral obligation to do good, such as improving their skills and knowledge, as well as recognizing their limitations.
Focused on Delivering Health Care without Prejudice
This principle involves dealing with patients fairly and prioritizing care for the most vulnerable. It also emphasizes the presence of loyalty, reliability, good faith, and the rule of confidentiality by safeguarding the patient's privacy.
The Basic Ethical Reference: Human Rights
The basic ethical reference in bioethics is human rights, which are indivisible, inherent, universal, and inalienable. The right to life takes priority because the exercise of all other rights presupposes life.
Ethical Considerations in Treating a Patient/Person
Find Thoughtful and Rational Justification (Setting Core Principles) Ask why we may have certain intuitions and how to manage conflicting intuitions.
Identify the Medical indications (Diagnosis), Patient/Resident/Family (PRF) Preferences, Quality of Life, and Social Contexts (Religion, Family Situation, and Financial Resources). Identify the available options and prioritize certain values/principles. Be willing to do research and seek advice.
Involve relevant stakeholders to create a shared decision-making process.
Always remember that there is no one correct action, only an acceptable one.
