DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (SUMMARIZED REVIEWER), Lecture notes of Developmental Psychology

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PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

1. Rapid Development - observed during the prenatal period and continues throughout babyhood up to the first 6 years of life.
2. Slow Development - starts from 6 years to adolescence. In the onset of adolescenc e, the rate of development is once more accelerated.
3. Maturation - which depends upon hereditary endowment of an individual, sets limit beyond which development cannot go on even when learning is encouraged.
4. Developmental Readiness - is the individual’s state of preparedness with respect to one or more areas of his functioning. Life Span Psychology is often referred as Developmental Psychology, development, as a lifelong process beginning at conception and ending in death, is in itself a discipline worthy of study. Rate of Development Implication of the Rate of Development Life Span Development Havighurt’s Developmental Tasks During the Life Span (Hurlock, 1982)

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Theory is a set of concepts and propositions that helps to describe and explain observations that one has made. Instincts, Goals and Motives a. Eros (life instinct) helps the child to survive, it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, sex and the fulfilment of bodily needs. b. Thanatos (death instinct) a set of destructive forces present in all human beings. Three Structures of Personality a. ID (pleasure principle) Serve the instincts by seeking objects that will immediately gratify needs b. EGO (reality principle) Executive of personality. Finds realistic ways of gratifying the instinct. It has the ability to delay gratification until reality is served. c. SUPEREGO (moralistic principle) Judicial branch of personality. It is the moral arbiter. It develops from the ego, represents the ideal and strives for perfection. Three Levels of th Mind a. Conscious - “awareness” Aspects of our mental processing that we can think and tal about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awarness. b. Preconscious - “some what aware” Consist anything that could be potentially be brought into conscious mind. c. Unconscious- “traumatic or early experiences” Contain contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant. “ Psycho” means personality, mind, or brain “ Sexual” means early sexual experiences (eregenous zones) Eregenous Zone - a body part that seeks satisfaction. Over or under satisfaction of this eregenous zone can lead to fixation. Fixation occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move onto the next. Psychosexual Stages of Development

1. Oral Stage (1 st year of life) Reflects the infant’s need for gratification from the mother. An infant’s eating, sucking, spitting and chewing do not only satisfy hunger, but also provide pleasure. Eregenous Zone: Mouth Theories of Human Development Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Develoment

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Two Inherited Intellectual Functions of Human Beings: a. Organization - the child’s tendency to arrange available schemata into coherent systems or bodies of knowledge. It is inborn and automatic. Children are constantly rearranging their existing knowledge to produce new and more complex mental structures. And how a child arrange information in a daily basis to create memory retention. b. Adaptation - the child’s tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment and ability to adjust information. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs in two ways: b.1. Assimilation - a process in which children seek to incorporate some new experiences into schemata that they already have. Assimilation would rarely allow one to adapt successfully to new experiences and incorporate “theme/schemata/information” to similar subjects. b.2. Accommodation - a process in which children alter their existing schemata in response to environmental development. Alter of existing schemata or information in response. Equilibration - proper balance between assimilation and accomodation. Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Infants are busy discovering the relationships between sensations and other motor behavior. The main feature of this stage is the child’s mastery of the principle of object permanence , ability to know that a object still exist even when out of sight. At the 4 – 5 months old, babies do not have object permanence yet. If a ball is shown to the baby and then it rolls out of sight, the baby will not look for it. At 8 months the child grasps the fact of object constancy and will search for toys that disappear from view_. In this stage, infants sensory_ organs are sensitive in this area and it focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movements through which infants comes to learn about themselves and the world.
   2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) The child now develops the capacity to employ symbols , particularly language. In this stage, a child can now make mental representation through symbols and has the capacity to create mental images and has active imagination. Children use symbols to portray the external world internally. For example, to talk about a ball and form a mental image of it. Children 4 & 5 years old consider their own view point to be the only possible and this is termed by Piaget as Egocentrism , the tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone also has the same POV. There are two substages of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental theory preoperational stage, namely, symbolic substage and intuitive substage. Symbolic stage , preschool children show progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. Intuitive substage , preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations. a. Animism - tendency of a child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects. b. Centration - tendency of a child to only focus on one aspect and exclude other aspects. c. Conservation - ability to know that certain properties of objects; mass, volume, or number, do not change even if there is change in appearance. d. Irreversibility - child’s inability to reverse their thinking. Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. e. Transductive Reasoning - type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive reasoning. f. Seriation - ability to arrange or order things to series based on dimensions such as weight. g. Decentering - ability of a child to perceive different features of objects/situation. h. Reversibility - a child can now follow that certain operation can be done in reverse. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years old) It is the beginning of rational activity in children. They come to master various logical operations, including arithmetic, class and set relationships, measurement, and conceptions of hierarchical structures. Children in this stage, has the capacity to answer questions with specific answers.
4. Stage of Formal Operations (11 years old and older) In this stage the child’s thought remains fixed upon the visible evidence and concrete properties of objects and events. Now children acquire a greater ability to deal with abstractions, hypothetical reasoning based on logic. Adolescents acquire the capacity for adult thinking. At this stage, children has now the capacity of reasoning and can answer the question how and why. Deductive Reasoning - ability to think logically by applying general rule. Hypothetical Reasoning - ability to come up with different hyphothesis about a problem and gather data, and weight data in order to make final decision or judgement. Analogical Reasoning - ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down a possible answers to narrow down possible answers to similar situation. The Heinz Dilemma In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug. He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, “Is he supposed to do it?” Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral development. Stages of Theory of Moral Development Level 1: Precoventional Stage Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of
   9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences for breaking the rules. Concrete interest. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment. The child doesn’t want to be punished rather than obey parents, thus, the child is good in order to avoid being punished. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development , children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs, and they become egecentric snd decide what will be beneficial for them. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests. Level 2: Conventional Morality The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society. This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. Stage 3: Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation , this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. For Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Developmenyt

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Twin Studies Monozygotic or Identical Twins- the result of a single fertilized egg splitting to form two new individuals. Arise when one egg cell further divides into two after being fertilized by one sperm. Dizygotic or Fraternal Twins- the result of two seperate eggs fertilized by two sperm. Arise from two egg cell which are fertilized by two different sperm cells. This includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall The following are the details of development during this period: a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization-the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome unite b) 36 hours-the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two cells c) 48 hours (2days) 2 cells become 4 cells d) 72 hours (3 days) 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells e) 96 hours (4 days) hollow ball (Morula) of 64- 128 cells f) 4-5 days inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus g) 6-7 days blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus h) 115 days blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it (implantation) In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst , the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period. later provides nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson. Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004). Trophoblast will develop into membranes (e.g., amnion, chorion→placenta) that will protect and support the embryo. Key Concepts

• Cleavage : Mitotic division of zygote into multiple cells
• Heterochrony : Different parts of the organism develop at different rates
• Heterogeneity : Variability in levels of development of different parts of the organism at a given time
• Epigenetic Hypothesis : This shows how environmental influences actually affect the expression of their genes. Nature & Nurture. Cells is the basic unit of life that everything is made of. Nucleus is the control center of the cell that contains chromosome, gene, and DNA. Chromosomes- threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material. There are two types of chromosome which are autosomes or trait chromosomes - it’s the first 22 pairs of chromosome. And sex chromosomes, 23 rd^ pair of chromosomes; these determine the sex of the child. If the zygote or fertilized egg receives an X from its mother and Y from its fther, the offspring will be a girl. If the zygot receives an X from its mother and X from its father, the offspring is boy. It is clear then, that we always receive an X from mother while and X or Y fro our father. The segments of DNA are called Genes , which determine the physical characteristics of the The Germinal Stage Cell, Mechanism of Heredity, Chromosomal Defects, and Duplication Process

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

individual that makes him/her unique. It provides a specific set of biological instructions, such as: the eye color, skin color, haircolor, body built and other characteristics. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity. Mitosis is DNA’s unique quality of being able to duplicate itself. Allele a form of the gene that controls a specific trait. One allele is inherited from the mother and one is inherited from the father.

• Homozygous – if the alleles from both parents are identical.
• Heterozygous – when the alleles from the parents are different. The expression of each trait in heterozygous will depend if it is a dominant or a recessive inheritance. Chromosomal Defects Pattern of Gene Inheritance

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The embryo's endoderm , the inner layer of cells develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair ). The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscula,. excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is called organogenesis. Embryonic Period is the most critical stage of prenatal development. Many important internal and external features start to grow and function during the embryonic period; the heart begins to beat, blood circulates around the embryo by the end of 3rd week. This enables the removal of wastes and acquisition of nutrients. If the embryo did not receive sufficient protection and nourishment, miscarriage or malformation may happen. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception). Growth and development continue dramatically during this period. The fetal stage is marked by the development of the first bone cells. The embryo is now called the fetus. The internal and external features continue to grow and develop. Basic features that emerged during the embryonic period are now refined and will grow up to its final form. Motor, sensory and learning behavior are found. By the third month , the fetus is able to move its head, legs, and feet. By the fourth month , the mother may feel kicking, and fetal movement. The beginning of the seventh month is considered the age of viability (ability to live, grow and develop). At the end of nine months , the fetus weighs on average 7.5 pounds and is almost 20 inches long. Sensing Motion

• Sense of balance at 5 months. Fetus has the capability to swim inside the amniotic sac. Vision
• Responds to light (i.e., heart rate changes, increased movement) at 26 weeks, thus, enables the fetus to perceive day and night. Sound
• Responds at 5-6 months
• Can discriminate outside sounds, but hears mother’s voice best (i.e., changes in heart rate). Fetus is able to perceive sounds Utero Memory is the people maternal memory inside te womb and stored in the unconscious mind. Presence of a sympathetic mate and other supportive family members, adequate housing, and steady employment; factors that give a woman a basic sense of security; appear to enhance the prospects for a healthy baby (Thompson, 1990). The Fetal Stage Fetal Sensory Capacities Maternal Conditions: Attitudes and Stress

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Psychological stress during pregnancy is associated with premature delivery and low birth weight (Hedegaard, 1993). Prolonged anxiety just before or during pregnancy increases the likelihood of medical complications. Emotional stress is related to spontaneous abortion as well as to labor and birthing problems. Poor nutrition leads to specific physical deformities and increased risk for prematurity and infant mortality; later nutritional deprivation leads to a reduced number of brain cells. Pregnant women should eat between two hundred and one thousand calories more per day, adding mainly carbohydrates and protein. Nutrition depravation cause reduced number of brain cells, thus, resulting to low number of neurons which affect the cognitive capacity of a child. A teratogen is anything a person is exposed to or ingests during pregnancy that's known to cause fetal abnormalities. Drugs, medicine, chemicals, certain infections and toxic substances are examples of teratogens. Teratogen usually does not have any impact in germinal period. But if it does, the zygote is usually damage and it dies. In embryonic periodb, this is the period where the most serious effects occur. This is because all of the major organs are developing at this time. In fetal period , the effects of teratogens are minor. However, organs such as the brain, eye, genital and lungs can be affected and the effects of teratogen during this period may not surface immediately, rather, after decades. Teratogens: Drugs, Alcohol, Smoking, and Infections Prescription : Thalidomide (nausea), Valium (tranquilizer), Accutane (acne), streptomycin & tetracycline (antibiotics), artificial hormones Caffeine : Increased rate of spontaneous abortion and low birth weight. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends that pregnant women limit their caffeine consumption to less than 200 mg (about two, six-ounce cups) per day. The recommendations are based on studies that suggest potential associations with pregnancy loss and fetal growth at higher caffeine levels. However, there remains limited data on the link between caffeine and maternal health outcomes. Marijuana : Low birth weight, premature delivery; infants startle more readily, have tremors, and experience sleep cycle problems Cocaine : More likely to be stillborn or premature, have low birth weights, have strokes, have birth defects; infants more irritable, uncoordinated, slow learners Methadone & Heroine : Born addicted; likely to be premature, underweight, vulnerable to respiratory illness, tremors, irritable; infants have difficulty attending, poor motor control Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome , abnormally small head, underdeveloped brain, eye abnormalities, congenital heart disease, joint anomalies, malformations of the face. Most serious damage from alcohol caused in first weeks of pregnancy. Are evident in their inability to pay attention or maintain attention. Maternal Diet and Nutrition Effects of Teratogens

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

1. Natural or Spontaneos Birth - fetus head emerged first through the birth canal.
2. Instrument Birth - with the aid of surgical instruments if the fetus is too large.
3. Breech Birth - fetal buttocks appear first followed by the legs, arms, and eventually head.
4. Tranverse Presentation - fetus lies crosswise in the mother’s uterus
5. Caesarean-section Birth- fetus is delivered surgically After about thirty-eight weeks in the womb, the baby is considered " full term ," or ready for birth. Fetal presentation refers to the body part closest to the mother's cervix. There are two types of presentation: A. Cephalic (normal) B. Breech Despite good psychological preparation, the mother may experience considerable pain, which can be made bearable through pain-reducing drugs such as narcotics or other sedatives. The most common anesthetics are epidural and spinal , which allow the mother to remain awake and alert during birth. A general or local anesthetic delays the recovery of the mother as well as the bonding between mother and child. Faulty power is the failure of the uterus to contract strongly enough to make labor progress to an actual delivery. Induced labor can be stimulated by the hormone oxytocin. A faulty passageway condition occurs when the placenta develops so close to the cervix that it blocks the baby's passage down the birth canal during labor. This condition is called placenta previa. A faulty passenger condition occurs when problems exist with the baby's position or size. Usually babies enter the birth canal head first, but occasionally one turns in the wrong direction during contractions. Forceps sometimes are used to remedy the situation. If forceps are unsuccessful or are too risky, Caesareans are performed. The Birth Episode Medical Aids to Birth Problems During Labor and Delivery

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Good guides for determining necessity of medical intervention and normal development. Not so useful for predicting later intelligence or personality. Physical condition : Apgar Scoring System Neurological condition : Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale APGAR Scoring System Neonatal Behavioral Assesment Scale The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) was developed by Dr. Berry Brazelton and his colleagues and today is regarded as the most comprehensive examination of newborn behavior available. It is best described as a neurobehavioral assessment scale, designed to describe the newborn’s responses to his/her new extrauterine environment and to document the contribution of the newborn infant to the development of the emerging parent-child relationship. Includes tests of infant reflexes, motor capacities, muscle tone, capacity for responding to objects and people, capacity to control own behavior, attention. Orientation to animate objects (visual/auditory) Pull-to-sit (e.g., try to right his head) Cuddliness (e.g., resist, passive, tries to cuddle) Defensive movements (e.g., try to remove cloth from face) Self-quieting activity (e.g., suck thumb, look around) Premature birth is when born before 37th week. More likely in twins, very young mothers, women who smoke or are under-nourished. Premature birth results to immaturity of the lungs (leading cause of death among preterm infants), as well as of their digestive and immune systems. Premature babies who are of normal size for their gestational age stand a good chance of catching up with full-term babies. However, some children born prematurely have problems with maintaining attention and with visual-motor coordination when they are school age. Low Birth Weight. Typical weight at birth: 7 to 7½ lbs. Causes of fetal growth retardation. Multiple births; intrauterine infections; placenta abnormalities; maternal smoking, use of narcotics, or malnutrition. Developmental consequences. Two-thirds of deaths that occur in the period immediately following birth are among low-birth-weight infants. 3x more likely to have neurologically-based developmental handicaps. Decrease in intellectual capacities in childhood. However, babies who are raised in good SES circumstance with an intact family and a mother with good education are less likely to suffer negative effects from their condition at birth than children raised without these benefits Assesing Viability Premature Birth, Consequences, and Low Birth Weight

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Reflexes are unlearned responses triggered by a specific form of stimulation. Pave the way for newborns to get the nutrients they need to grow. Protect the newborn from danger in the environment. Foundation for larger, voluntary patterns of motor activity. And can help determine whether the newborn's nervous system is working properly. Neonatal Behavioral Assesment Scale Reflexes

PSY 10 2

KRISTOFFER SOTOZA, RPm | 202 5 - 2026

Pattern of Growth