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UNIT I: BASIC METHODS AND DESIGN IN RESEARCH STRATEGIES
Theories are groups of ideas and propositions used to organize, describe, and explain an existing set of observations. Hypotheses are estimates about imminent phenomena.
Acceptable research methods possess: ● Reliability (produce consistent, replicable results) ● Validity (accurately measure what they are intended to measure)
Research Methods (Two methodological traditions) ● Quantitative research focuses on objectively measurable data. ● Qualitative research examines nonnumeric data such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. ● Scientific method is a process that requires the use of objective data to determine the viability of theories. ● Sample is a set of people selected to reflect the overall population being studied. ● Random selection is the process of selecting a sample so that each individual in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
4 Major Methods of Data Collection
Type Main Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Self-report: diary, visual reports, interview, or questionnaire
Participants are asked about a certain aspect of their lives; the questions might be highly structured or more flexible, and the self- report can be verbal or visual.
Can provide first-hand knowledge about a person's life, attitudes, or beliefs. Visual techniques (such as drawing, mapping, and graphing) avoid the need for verbal skills.
The participant may not remember information correctly or may distort responses in a socially acceptable manner; how a question is asked or by whom may influence the answer.
Naturalistic observation
People are observed in their natural surroundings, with no attempts to alter behavior.
Provides a good description of behavior without subjecting people to unnatural conditions that may alter behavior.
Lack of control and observer bias
Laboratory observation
Participants are observed in the laboratory without any attempts to alter their behavior.
It provides better descriptions and more control than naturalistic observation because all participants are seen under same controlled conditions.
Observer bias and controlled situation can be artificial.
Behavioral and performance measures
Participants are tested on abilities, skills, knowledge, competencies, or physical responses.
Provides objectively measured information while avoiding subjective distortions.
Cannot measure attitudes or other nonbehavioral phenomena and results may be affected by extraneous factors.
4 Basic Research Design
Type Main Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Case Study In-depth study of a single individual
Flexibility; provides a detailed picture of one’s behavior and development and can generate hypotheses.
May not generalize to others; Conclusions are not directly testable and cannot show causation and effect.
Ethnographic study In-depth study of a culture or subculture.
Can help overcome cultural biases in theory and research, as well as test the universality of developmental phenomena.
Subject to observer bias.
Correlational study Attempt to find a positive or negative relationship between variables.
It enables the prediction of one variable based on another and can generate hypotheses concerning causal relationships.
Cannot establish cause and effect.
Experiment controlled procedure in which an experimenter controls the independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable may be conducted in the laboratory or field.
Establishes cause-and- effect relationships, is highly controlled, and can be replicated by another investigator, making it the most controlled laboratory experiment.
Findings, particularly those that result from laboratory research, might not be applicable to settings outside the laboratory.
Research Designs for Studying Human Development
Type Main Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Cross-sectional Data is collected from people of various ages at at the same time.
Can demonstrate similarities and differences between age groups; is speedy and cost-effective; and has no
Cannot establish age effects; hides individual variations; and can be influenced by cohort effects.
Longitudinal. Data are gathered on the same individual or people over time
Can show age-related change or continuity; prevent confounding age and cohort effects.
It is time-consuming and costly; it introduces issues of attrition, sample bias, and the consequences of repeated testing; and the
LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT
Life-span development is the scientific study of human development as a continuous process that occurs throughout one's life (Papalia & Martorell, 2021).
The Life-Span Perspective: ● Life-span perspective is a perception that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.
Components of the Life-span Perspective (Paul Baltes) ● Development is Lifelong. Development occurs throughout an individual’s entire life ● Development is Multidimensional. Development covers the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development. ● Development is Multidirectional. During development some aspects in an individual like skills were developed while we're underdeveloped. ● Development is Multidisciplinary. Other disciplines share interest in the study of human development. ● Development is Plastic. Characteristics of development can be changeable or moldable nahuhubog ● Development is Contextual. Development is influenced by different factors (historical, economic, social and cultural factors).
GOALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ● As the field of human development evolved, its goals expanded to include description, explanation, prediction, and intervention.
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT ● Biological/Physical processes are changes in an individual’s physical nature. ● Cognitive processes are changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. ● Psychosocial processes are changes in an individual’s interpersonal relationships, emotions, and personality Each domain impacts the others. They are separated but interrelated.
PERIODS OF THE LIFESPAN/DEVELOPMENT ● The division of life into periods is a social construct: a belief or practice developed by a particular culture or civilization.
Four ages (Baltes, 2006; Willis & Schaie, 2006): ● First age: Childhood and adolescence ● Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 ● Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age ● Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and olde r
Three distinct developmental patterns according to K. Warner Schaie (2016) that provide a depiction of how aging can contain individual variations: ● Most persons have normal aging, with psychological functioning peaking in early middle age, remaining relatively stable until the late fifties and early sixties, and then gradually dropping until the early 1980s. ● pathological aging. People who experience a greater-than-average drop in their adult years ● Individuals with successful aging experience extended periods of positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional progress, with deterioration happening later in life than the general population.
Significance of Age Age and Happiness - According to some research, it is U-shaped, negatively correlated, and positively correlated (depende sa tao)
Conception of Age According to some life-span experts, chronological age is not very relevant to understanding a person’s psychological development.
- Age does not matter
- There are other “Ages” other than chronological age
● Biological age is a person's age based on their biological health. It entails understanding the functional capabilities of a person's vital organs. ● Psychological age refers to an individual's adaptive capacity in comparison to others of the same chronological age. ● The term "social age" refers to the social roles and expectations that come with being a certain age. Consider the "mother" role and the associated actions.
Developmental Issues ● The nature-nurture debate centers on the extent to which nature and nurture influence developmental outcomes. ○ A social construction is an idea or practice that is unique to a specific culture or society (Santrock, 2019). ● The stability-change debate encompasses whether early traits and characteristics persist throughout life or change (Santrock, 2019). ● Continuity-discontinuity investigates the extent to which evolution involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) (Santrock, 2019).
Influences on Development (Heredity, Environment, and Maturation.) ● Heredity refers to inborn characteristics inherited from biological parents. ● The environment encompasses non-hereditary or experiential impacts on development. ● Maturation is the normal course of physical and behavioral changes (Papalia & Martorell, 2021).
Neuroplasticity
Characterized by heightened plasticity, but this diminishes significantly after the period ends.
Involves heightened plasticity, allowing for some degree of change even after the period has passed.
Examples
Language acquisition in early childhood, sensory development (e.g., vision), and animal imprinting.
Language learning, emotional regulation, and social skills development.
Consequences of Missing the Period
Missing experiences can lead to permanent deficits (e.g., loss of vision if deprived during the critical period).
Missing experiences may lead to difficulties but can be mitigated with later interventions (e.g., learning a second language).
Duration Typically shorter and more defined.
Generally longer and more flexible, allowing for a range of experiences.
Theoretical perspectives in human developmenT (basic theoretical issues)
● Issue 1: is development active or reactive? ○ Psychologists who believe in reactive development see the developing child as a hungry sponge that absorbs events and is molded by them over time. ○ Psychologists that believe in active development claim that people construct their own experiences and are eager to learn about the world around them. Things do not merely happen to them; they play an active role in shaping their reality. ● Issue 2: Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? ○ development as continuous, occurring in small, incremental phases. Development is always guided by the same processes, which include the incremental refinement and extension of early talents into later abilities, allowing one to forecast future traits based on past performance. This is referred to as quantitative change—a change in number or quantity, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size. ○ development as discontinuous, with the appearance of new phenomena that are difficult to predict based on previous functioning. According to this viewpoint, development at all stages of life differs fundamentally. It is a change in type, structure, or organization, not just in quantity. This form of change is referred to as qualitative change. Organismic theorists support stage theories, which view development as occurring in a sequence of different stages, much like stair steps.
Two model
○ Mechanistic model. An approach that perceives human development as a series of predictable responses to stimulus. ○ Organismic model. Human development is viewed as an internal process beginning by an active organism and occurring in a series of qualitatively distinct stages.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory ● As the child matures biologically, their psychic energy of the sex instinct (libido) shifts from one part of the body to another, wherein there is a quest to please different biological needs. ● Fixations, a persistent focus of the id’s pleasure-seeking energies that influences the earlier stage of psychosexual development.
Stage Age Range Erogenous Zones Fixations
Oral Birth to 1 year Mouth Chronic thumb sucker, chain smoker, gum-chewing, nail-biting
Anal 1 to 3 years Bowel and Bladder Control
Anal-retentive individuals: overly obsessed with orderliness and tidiness. Anal-expulsive individuals: messy and disorganized
Phallic 4 to 6 years Genitals Overly vanity, exhibitionistic, sexually aggressive
Latenc y
6 to Puberty - Sexual feelings are inactive
Genital
Puberty to Death
Maturing Sexual Interests -
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory ● Each stage has a unique developmental task that confronts individuals during a life crisis that needs resolution. The purpose of this is that guiding child should be balance
Stage Crisis Important Events Development Outcome Virtue Developed
Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding
Sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. Failure leads to mistrust.
Hope
Early Childhood
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Toilet Training
Sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy; failure leads to feelings of shame and doubt.
Will
Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success leads to a sense of purpose; failure leads to a sense of guilt.
Purpose
PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE
JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY)
- children undergo four stages of cognitive development while they actively construct their understanding of the world (Santrock, 2019).
● Stages of Cognitive Development ● Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to about 2 years of age) Description: Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences and physical actions. ● Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years of age) Description: Children begin to characterize the world with words, images, and drawings. ● Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years of age) Description: Children can reason logically when it can be applied to specific or concrete examples. ● Formal Operational Stage (11 to 15 years of age and continues through adulthood) Description: Individuals begin to think in abstract, idealistic, and more logical ways.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY ● that children actively construct their knowledge and that their social interaction and culture plays important roles in their cognitive development (Cherry, 2020).
The Zone of Proximal Development ● the term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for a child to master alone but can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children. ● The lower limit is the level of skill reached by the child working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor (Clara, 2017; Holzman, 2017). Scaffolding ● altering the level of support to the child.
The information-processing approach ● It is a method of studying cognitive development that involves observing and examining the mental processes involved in perception and information processing. ● The information processing approach attempts to explain cognitive development by examining the processes involved in making sense of new information and effectively performing tasks, such as attention, memory, planning strategies, decision-making, and goal-setting.
PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT ● the developing individual with his/her genetic makeup and biological and psychological characteristics, is embedded in a series of environmental systems.
The Four Environmental Systems ● The microsystem is the situation in which the individual lives. The mesosystem contains the linkages between two or more microsystems. ● The exosystem consists of linkage between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate setting. ● The macrosystem encompasses the culture in which individuals live. ● The chronosystem covers the patterns of environmental events, transitions of life course, and sociohistorical circumstances.
PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
● Wilson (1975) proposed the evolutionary/sociobiological approach, which focuses on the evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior. It is influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. ● According to Darwin, species evolved through the processes of survival of the fittest and natural selection. Individuals with heritable qualities that are better adapted to their settings survive and reproduce more than those who are not as well adapted. ● Ethology is the study of the various adaptive behaviors of animal species that have developed to better their chances of survival. ● Evolutionary psychology is the application of Darwin's principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior.
UNIT III. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, BIRTH AND POSTNATAL
THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES
Natural Selection: The process by which species that are best adapted survive and reproduce.
Evolutionary Psychology: Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping individual behavior.
● Adaptation: Species become fitted to their environment through survival, aided by physical and behavioral characteristics. ● Reproduction: The production of offspring. ● Survival of the Fittest: Any organism that best adjusts to its environment is most likely to survive and reproduce.
FORMING A NEW LIFE
● Fertilization (Conception): The process by which sperm and ovum (the male and female gametes) combine to create a single cell called a zygote. The zygote duplicates itself through cell division to produce all the cells that make up a baby. ● Zygote: A one-celled organism resulting from fertilization. ● Fertile Window: The time during which conception is possible; i t is highly unpredictable.
ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY (ART)
● Artificial Insemination: Sperm is injected into a woman’s vagina, cervix, or uterus. ● In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): A woman’s ova are surgically removed, fertilized in a laboratory dish, and implanted in the woman’s uterus. ● Cryopreservation (Egg Freezing): Eggs are harvested with the intention of conceiving a child later with the help of IVF, extending the years of a woman’s fertility.
MULTIPLE BIRTHS
● Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal Twins): Result from two separate eggs being fertilized by two different sperm, forming two unique individuals. ● Monozygotic Twins (Identical Twins): Result from the cleaving of one fertilized egg and are generally genetically identical.
THE GENETIC CODE
● Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): A chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life, consisting of four chemical units called bases: A – Adenine, T – Thymine, C – Cytosine, G – Guanine. ● Chromosomes: Coils of DNA that consist of smaller segments called genes. ● Genes: Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes, serving as the functional units of heredity. ● Human Genome: The complete sequence of genes in the human body. ● Mutations: Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics.
SEX DETERMINATION
● Autosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression. ● Sex Chromosomes: The 23rd pair of chromosomes that determines the sex of the baby: Male: XY chromosomes, Female: XX chromosomes.
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION
Polycystic kidney disease
Infantile form leads to enlarged kidneys causing respiratory problems and heart failure; adult form causes kidney pain and chronic kidney failure.
1 in 1,000 Kidney necessary.^ transplants^ may^ be
Sickle-cell anemia
Deformed red blood cells that can clog blood vessels, leading to severe pain and various complications like infections and stroke.
1 in 500 African Americans
Pain management, transfusions for anemia and stroke prevention, antibiotics for infections.
Tay-Sachs disease Degenerative brain disease resulting in death before age 5.
Historically found mainly in Eastern European Jews
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Pattern/Name Typical Characteristics Incidence Treatment
XYY Male; tall stature; tendency toward low IQ, especially verbal. (^1) births^ in^ 1,000^ male No special treatment.
XXX (Triple X) Female; normal appearance; menstrual irregularities; learning disorders; mental retardation.^1 births^ in^ 1,000^ female Special education.
XXY
(Klinefelter)
Male; sterility; underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics; small testes; learning disorders.
1 in 1,000 male births
Hormone therapy; special education.
XO (Turner) Female; short stature; webbed neck; impaired spatial abilities; no menstruation; infertility; underdeveloped sex organs.^1 female births^ in^ 1,500 to 2,500^ Hormone special education.^ therapy;
Fragile X
Minor-to-severe mental retardation; symptoms more severe in males include delayed speech and motor development, speech impairments, and hyperactivity.
1 in 1,200 male births; 1 in 2, female births
Educational and behavioral therapies when needed
PHYSICAL CHANGE IN PREGNANCY
● Tender, swollen breasts or nipples ● Fatigue; need to take extra naps ● Slight bleeding or cramping ● Food cravings ● Nausea with or without vomiting ● Frequent urination ● Frequent, mild headaches ● Constipation ● Mood swings ● Faintness and dizziness ● Raised basal body temperature
GESTATION
● Definition : The period of development between conception and birth. ● Normal Range : Between 37 and 41 weeks.
GESTATIONAL AGE
● Definition : The age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle.
STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
● Cephalocaudal Principle : Development proceeds from the head to the lower part of the trunk. The embryo’s head, brain, and eyes develop earliest and are disproportionately large until the other parts catch up. ● Proximodistal Principle : Development proceeds from parts near the center of the body to outer ones. The embryo’s head and trunk develop before the limbs, and the arms and legs develop before the fingers and toes.
THREE PERIODS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:
- Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks) : ○ Characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus.
- Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 weeks) : ○ Characterized by organogenesis, the rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. ○ The embryo is most vulnerable to destructive influences in the prenatal environment. ○ Spontaneous Abortion (miscarriage) : Natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive outside the womb. ○ Stillbirth : Miscarriage that occurs after 20 weeks of gestation.
- Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth) : ○ Characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. ○ 250,000 immature neurons are produced every minute. ○ Most neurons in the higher areas of the brain are in place by 20 weeks, and the structure becomes increasingly well-defined during the next 12 weeks. ○ Taste buds and olfactory receptors begin to form at about 8 weeks. ○ From about the 12th week, the fetus swallows and inhales amniotic fluid. ○ By about week 20, taste buds and olfactory receptors become functional.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: MATERNAL FACTORS
● Teratogen : An environmental agent (e.g., virus, drug, radiation) that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities. ● Nutrition and Maternal Weight : Women who gain the recommended amount of weight are less likely to have birth complications or bear babies with dangerously low or high birth weight. ● Malnutrition : A calorie deficit can result in fetal growth restriction and low birth weight. Babies born to malnourished mothers have higher risks of death and may experience stunted growth. Fetal undernutrition is associated with increased risks for diseases in adulthood. ● Physical Activity and Work : Moderate exercise during pregnancy does not endanger healthy fetuses. Regular exercise can reduce constipation and back pain and may lower the risk of complications such as gestational diabetes and preeclampsia.
Drug Intake :
● Medical Drugs : ○ Antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline) ○ Nervous system depressants (e.g., barbiturates, opiates) ○ Certain hormones (e.g., diethylstilbestrol, androgens) ○ Anticancer drugs (e.g., methotrexate) ○ Accutane (for severe acne) ○ Antiepileptic drugs ○ Antipsychotic drugs ○ ACE inhibitors ○ NSAIDs ● Opioids : Associated with small babies, fetal death, preterm labor, and neonatal abstinence syndrome (withdrawal symptoms in newborns). ● Alcohol : Can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), characterized by retarded growth, facial and body malformations, and central nervous system disorders. ● Nicotine : Women who smoke are more likely to have low-birth-weight babies, miscarry, or experience complications. Secondhand smoke has similar effects. ● Caffeine : Intake under 300 milligrams a day is not associated with increased risks of miscarriage or birth defects. ● Marijuana : High-level exposure is linked to low birth weight and preterm delivery. ● Cocaine : Associated with delayed growth, placental displacement, low birth weight, and neurological impairments. ● Methamphetamine : Linked to preterm delivery and low birth weight, with potential long-term consequences for fetal brain development.
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
After in vitro fertilization, a sample cell is removed from the blastocyst and analyzed.
- Avoid transmission of genetic defects or predispositions known to run in the family
Umbilical cord sampling (cordocentesis)
Needles guided by ultrasound are inserted into blood vessels of the umbilical cord.
- Direct access to fetal DNA for diagnosis of blood disorders and infections
- Allows therapeutic measures such as blood transfusions
- Fetal loss or miscarriage reported in 1-2% of cases
- Increases risk of bleeding from umbilical cord and fetal distress
Maternal blood test
A sample of the mother’s blood is tested for alpha-fetoprotein or for fetal DNA.
- May indicate defects in brain or spinal cord formation (anencephaly or spina bifida)
- Can predict Down syndrome and other abnormalities
- No known risks, but false negatives are possible
- Ultrasound and/or amniocentesis needed to confirm suspected conditions
THE BIRTH PROCESS
● Labor - The process of giving birth. ● Parturition - The act or process of giving birth, typically beginning about 2 weeks before delivery. ● Braxton-Hicks Contractions ○ False contractions that occur during the final months of pregnancy or as early as the second trimester. ○ Muscles of the uterus tighten for up to 2 minutes. ○ In contrast to Braxton-Hicks contractions, real labor contractions are more frequent, rhythmic, and painful, increasing in frequency and intensity.
STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
● First Stage ○ Involves the dilation of the cervix, lasting 12 to 14 hours for first-time mothers. ○ Regular and increasingly frequent uterine contractions (initially 15 to 20 minutes apart) cause the cervix to shorten and dilate to prepare for delivery. ○ This stage ends when the cervix is fully open (10 centimeters, or about 4 inches). ● Second Stage ○ Marked by the descent and emergence of the baby, typically lasting up to one or two hours. ○ Begins when the baby's head starts to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal and ends when the baby is fully delivered. ○ The baby remains attached to the placenta via the umbilical cord, which must be cut and clamped. ● Third Stage ○ Involves the expulsion of the placenta, lasting between 10 minutes and 1 hour. ○ The placenta and the remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled from the mother.
ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING
● Mechanical monitoring of the fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. ● Typically uses sensors attached to the woman's midsection, held in place with an electric belt. ● Has a high false positive rate.
VAGINAL VS. CESAREAN DELIVERY
Vaginal Delivery - The usual method of childbirth.
Cesarean Delivery - Surgical removal of a baby from the uterus, performed when labor progresses slowly, the fetus is in a breech or transverse position, or when the mother experiences complications.
MEDICATED VS. NON MEDICATED DELIVERY
● Natural Childbirth - A method of childbirth that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother’s fear through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in breathing and relaxation during delivery.
○ Lamaze Method - The woman is trained to pant or breathe rapidly in sync with her contractions and to concentrate on other sensations to ease the perception of pain. ● Prepared Childbirth A method of childbirth that uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to induce controlled physical responses to uterine contractions and reduce fear and pain. ○ Doula - An experienced mentor who provides emotional support and information for a woman during labor.
Neonatal period - The first 4 weeks of life, marking the transition from the uterus, where a fetus is supported entirely by the mother, to an independent existence.
Neonate - A newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old.
THE NEWBORN BABY
● Size and Appearance ○ Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls. ○ Firstborn children are likely to weigh less at birth than later borns. ○ Newborns have a large head (one-fourth of body length) and a receding chin, which makes it easier to nurse. ○ Fontanel - Areas where the bones of the skull do not meet, covered by a tough membrane that allows for flexibility in shape. ● Body Systems ○ Anoxia - Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage. ○ Hypoxia - Reduced oxygen supply. ○ Neonatal Jaundice - A condition in many newborns caused by liver immaturity, evidenced by a yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly. ● Medical and Behavioral Assessment ○ Neonatal Screening for Medical Conditions ○ APGAR Scale ■ Conducted one minute after delivery and again 5 minutes after birth. ■ A 5-minute score of 7 to 10 indicates that the baby is in good to excellent condition. ■ A score below 5 to 7 means the baby needs help to establish breathing. ■ A score below 4 indicates the baby needs immediate lifesaving treatment. ■ Scores of 0 to 3 at 10, 15, and 20 minutes after birth are increasingly associated with cerebral or other neurological problems. ○ Brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment scale (BNBAS) ■ A neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate’s responses to the environment. ■ Suitable for infants up to 2 months old. ■ Takes about 30 minutes to administer. ■ It assesses: ■ Motor organization ■ Reflexes ■ Changes in state ■ Attention and interactive capacities ■ Indications of central nervous system instability
COMPLICATION OF CHILDBIRTH
● Low Birth Weight (LBW) ○ Neonates who weigh less than 5½ pounds (2500 grams) at birth. ○ Preterm (Premature) Infants ■ Babies born before the 37th week of gestation. ○ Small-For-Date (Small-For-Gestational-Age) Infants ■ Babies born at or around their due dates are smaller than expected. ■ Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age, resulting from slow fetal growth. ○ Kangaroo Care (KC) ■ An intervention method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts for an hour or so at a time after birth. ● Postmaturity ○ A fetus not yet born 2 weeks after the due date or 42 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual period.
Reflexes
Reflexes Age of Disappearance Description Possible Function
Rooting reflex 3 weeks
An involuntary reaction where infants turn their head towards the side of their mouth that is touched, showing a sucking reaction.
Food intake
Stepping reflex 2 months Movement of legs when held upright with feet touching the floor, mimicking walking.^ Preparation independent locomotion^ for
Grasping/Palm reflex (Darwinian) 5-6 months^ Infants grasp anything that touches their palm.^ Voluntary movements
Moro reflex 6 months
A startled response involving arching the back, throwing back the head, and pulling arms and legs to the center of the body.
Protection from falling
Babinski reflex 8-12 months Toes fan out when the outside of the foot is stroked.^ Health of the corticospinal tract
Sucking reflex Remains An automatic reaction to suck an object placed near the mouth, essential for nourishment. Food intake
Neuroconstructivist View
● A belief that biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain’s development. ● The brain has plasticity and is context-dependent. ● Development of the brain and cognitive development are closely linked.
Early Sensory Capacities
● Touch and Pain ○ Embryos respond to touch as early as 8 to 9 weeks of pregnancy, though these responses do not involve conscious awareness. ○ In the second trimester, fetuses begin to respond to touch. ○ In the third trimester, responses to touch become more robust; fetuses reach out to touch the uterine wall, yawn, cross their arms, or touch themselves. ○ By 32 weeks of gestation, all body parts are sensitive to touch, and sensitivity increases during the first 5 days of life.
Smell and Taste
● Develop in the womb from flavors of food consumed by the mother, found in amniotic fluid and transmitted via breast milk. ● Taste preferences developed in infancy may last into early childhood. ● Newborns prefer sweet tastes over sour, bitter, or salty tastes.
Hearing
● Fetuses respond to sound in the womb. ● Infants as young as 2 days old can recognize words they heard up to a day earlier. ● At 1 month, babies can distinguish similar sounds, such as "ba" and "pa." ● By 11 to 17 weeks, infants can recognize and remember entire sentences after a brief delay.
● By 4 months, infants’ brains show lateralization for language, similar to adults.
Sight
● Least developed sense at birth. ● The ability to follow a moving target develops rapidly in the first months, as does color perception. ● Visual acuity at birth is approximately 20/400 but improves rapidly, reaching 20/20 by about 8 months. ● Binocular vision—using both eyes to focus for depth and distance perception—usually develops around 4 to 5 months.
MILESTONE OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Gross Motor Skills
● Physical skills involving large muscles (e.g., rolling over, catching a ball).
Fine Motor Skills
● Physical skills involving small muscles and eye-hand coordination (e.g., grasping a rattle, copying a circle).
Head Control
● At birth, most infants can turn their heads from side to side while lying on their backs. ● Within the first 2 to 3 months, they lift their heads higher and may roll over. ● By 4 months, almost all infants can keep their heads erect while held or supported in a sitting position.
Hand Control
● Babies are born with a grasping reflex. ● By 3 months, most infants will bat at objects and grasp moderately sized ones. ● At 4 months, babies keep their hands open most of the time and deliberately hold and shake a rattle. ● By 6 months, infants begin to grasp objects with one hand and transfer them. ● Between 7 and 11 months, they develop pincer grasp coordination and may begin throwing objects. ● By 15 months, the average baby can build a tower of three to four cubes. ● At slightly over 2 years, infants can string large beads, unscrew jars, and turn book pages, though not very well yet. ● A few months after the 3rd birthday, toddlers can copy a circle and cut with scissors fairly well.
Locomotion
● After 3 months, infants begin to roll over deliberately (first front to back, then back to front). ● The average baby can sit without support by 6 months and can assume a sitting position independently by about 8 months.
Social Referencing
● Infants look to caregivers for cues about whether a situation is secure or frightening.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND PERCEPTION
Depth Perception - Ability to perceive objects and surfaces in three dimensions.
Haptic Perception - Ability to acquire information about object properties (e.g., size, weight, texture) by handling them.
THEORIES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Ecological Theory of Perception (Eleanor and James Gibson)
● Locomotor development depends on infants’ increasing sensitivity to the interaction between their changing physical characteristics and varied environmental characteristics. ● It is not a stage approach and does not imply that locomotion develops in universal stages.
Dynamic Systems Theory (Esther Thelen)
● Motor development is a dynamic process involving the active coordination of multiple systems within the infant in relation to the environment.
