Chemistry Summary Notes, Study notes of Chemistry

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CHEMISTRY

Compiled and made by: Redeem

MATTER

TYPES of MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCES - made of only one kind of substance

Elements - made of only one kind of atom a. Non - Metals - number of valence electrons is close to completing the octet rule; accepts electrons during ionic bonding; forms anions when ionized. b. Metals - number of valence electrons is small; donates electrons during ionic bonding; forms cations when ionized. c. Metalloids - can act as a metal or a non-metal depending on the conditions. Compounds - made of two or more different kinds of atoms a. Ionic - components are a pair of anion group and a cation group; elections are transferred from the cation to the anion. b. Covalent - components are both anion groups; electrons are shared within the bond c. Metallic - components are both metals; elections are stored in a "Sea of Electrons"

MIXTURES - made of two or more different kinds of substances

Homogenous - mixtures wherein only one phase is discernible: commonly called "solutions" a. Concentration - measure of the relative amounts of the components of a solution b. Solute - component that dissolves in the solution c. Solvent - the component that dissolves other components of the solution d. Solubility - maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a particular solvent under specific conditions; often expressed as a ratio or other measures of concentration

Some Common Measures of Concentration

Molarity (M) Molality (m) Mass Percent Volume Percent Electrical Charge Solubility greatly depends on the balance of the intermolecular forces of the solute and the solvent. SOLUBILITY RULE All nitrates (NO3) are soluble All chlorides (Cl) are soluble except AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and PbCl Most sulfates (SO ) are soluble; exceptions include BaSO4, PbSO4, and SrSO

Normality of Solution

number of equivalent weights of a solute per liter of the solution All carbonates (CO ) are insoluble except NH and those of Group 1 All hydroxides (OH) are insoluble except those of Group 1, Ba(OH)2, Sr(0H)2, and Ca(OH) All sulfides are insoluble except those of Group 1, Group 2, and NH Heterogenous - mixtures wherein two or more distinct phases are discernible a. Suspensions - suspended articles are too large and too heavy to be carried by the motion of the particles in which they are suspended in causing them to settle after some time. b. Colloids (Tyndall effect: particles don't settle) - suspended particles are small and light enough to be carried by the movement of the particles in which they are suspended in. TYPES of COLLOIDS PHASE (^) NAME EXAMPLE Solid in Solid Solid in Liquid Solid in Gas Liquid in Solid Liquid in Liquid Liquid in Gas Gas in Solid Gas in Liquid Solid sol Sol Solid aerosol Gel Emulsion Aerosol Solid foam Foam Colored glass, ruby, opal Paint, blood Smoke, ice, clouds, air particulates Agar, gelatin Egg, milk, hand cream Fog, cloud, hair spray Styrofoam, aerogel, pumice Shaving cream, whipped cream moles (^) of^ solute M = Liters (^) of solution mass (^) ofsolute x #... unm w wr Fe^ 2 t I N = number (^) of equivalent (^) weights Equicahentranswestoneseen (^2) of solution III

ATOM All matter is made of atoms Atoms of the same element are identical Atoms can combine to produce other substances Atoms combine in specific proportion to for a specific substance Components of an atom

1. Protons (P+) - positive charge subatomic particle with a mass of 1.67 x 10 kg or 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
2. Neutrons (N ) - neutral in charge and has a mass of 1.67 x 10 kg or 1 amu
3. Electrons (E-) - negative charge particles with a mass of 9.11 x 10 kg that is considered to be negligible

• protons & neutrons are found within the center of the atom called "nucleus" and is where the mass of the whole atom is concentrated.
• electrons are located orbiting outside the nucleus in certain regions depending on their quantum state. Properties of an atom

1. Atomic number (Z) - equal to the number of protons
2. Mass number (A) - equal to the sum of the number of protons & neutrons
3. Charge (q) - equal to the difference between number of protons & the number of elections COMMON NOTATION Isotopes - atoms of the same element but have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons, thus different mass number. Percent natural abundance - relative abundance of a certain isotope compared to all the isotopes of the same element Atomic weight - weighted average of the mass numbers of the isotopes of that particular element ELEMENTS CLASSIFICATIONS of ELEMENTS METALS usually solid, malleable, ductile, can be plastically deformed Highly conductive for heat & electricity with the exception of a few elements Low electronegativities & ionization energies High melting points & densities NON-METALS Brittle solids Poor conductors of heat & electricity High electronegativities & ionization energies METALLOIDS Properties are in- between those of metals & non-metals Reactivity depends on the elements to be reacted with Discovery (^) of subatomic (^) particles Discovery (^) of Isotopes

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GAS LAWS Boyle's Law particular amount of gas at a constant pressure temperature increase in volume when the pressure is decreased Charles Law particular amount of gas in a constant pressure in crease in volume when the temperature is increased. Gay - Lussac's Law particular amount of gas in a constant volume increase in temperature when pressure the is increased. Avogadro's Law gas in a constant pressure and temperature increases in volume when the amount of particles increased The Combined Gas Law Law of Partial Pressures the pressure of a mixture of gases, is the sum of the pressures of the individual components Law of Effusion the rate at which a gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the root of its density (or mass) P. Vi^ = PeVe I (^) = = =^2 Pt

= P2 + P2 + Pe...

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