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Animal Physiology Lecture, Lecture notes of Health sciences

Cavite State University (CSU)Health sciences

Summarize different functions of the body systems

Typology: Lecture notes

2023/2024

Uploaded on 05/07/2025

kdeluna
kdeluna 🇵🇭

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Sure, blood consists of formed elements, which include:
1. **Red Blood Cells (RBCs)**:
- Type: Erythrocytes
- Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carry carbon dioxide from
the tissues back to the lungs for exhalation.
2. **White Blood Cells (WBCs)**:
- Type: Leukocytes
- Function: Part of the immune system, they defend the body against infectious diseases and
foreign invaders. There are several types of white blood cells, including:
- Neutrophils: Phagocytize bacteria and other pathogens.
- Lymphocytes: Include B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells involved in adaptive and
innate immunity.
- Monocytes: Precursors to macrophages, involved in phagocytosis and antigen presentation.
- Eosinophils: Combat parasitic infections and modulate allergic responses.
- Basophils: Release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammatory responses and
allergic reactions.
3. **Platelets**:
- Type: Thrombocytes
- Function: Essential for blood clotting (coagulation). They help in the formation of blood clots
to prevent excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured.
These formed elements work together to maintain homeostasis and protect the body from
various threats.
The flow of blood from the heart is a vital process that ensures the delivery of oxygen and
nutrients to all tissues of the body while removing metabolic waste products. Here's an
overview of the blood flow from the heart:
1. **Deoxygenated Blood Flow**:
a. **Right Atrium**: Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the superior and
inferior vena cavae, emptying into the right atrium.
b. **Tricuspid Valve**: The right atrium contracts, pushing blood through the tricuspid valve
into the right ventricle.
c. **Right Ventricle**: The right ventricle contracts, pumping deoxygenated blood through
the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery.
d. **Pulmonary Artery**: The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs,
where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide through the process of gas exchange.
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Sure, blood consists of formed elements, which include:

  1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs):
    • Type: Erythrocytes
    • Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carry carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs for exhalation.
  2. White Blood Cells (WBCs):
    • Type: Leukocytes
    • Function: Part of the immune system, they defend the body against infectious diseases and foreign invaders. There are several types of white blood cells, including:
    • Neutrophils: Phagocytize bacteria and other pathogens.
    • Lymphocytes: Include B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells involved in adaptive and innate immunity.
    • Monocytes: Precursors to macrophages, involved in phagocytosis and antigen presentation.
    • Eosinophils: Combat parasitic infections and modulate allergic responses.
    • Basophils: Release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammatory responses and allergic reactions.
  3. Platelets:
    • Type: Thrombocytes
    • Function: Essential for blood clotting (coagulation). They help in the formation of blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. These formed elements work together to maintain homeostasis and protect the body from various threats. The flow of blood from the heart is a vital process that ensures the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to all tissues of the body while removing metabolic waste products. Here's an overview of the blood flow from the heart:
  4. Deoxygenated Blood Flow: a. Right Atrium: Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae, emptying into the right atrium. b. Tricuspid Valve: The right atrium contracts, pushing blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. c. Right Ventricle: The right ventricle contracts, pumping deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. d. Pulmonary Artery: The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide through the process of gas exchange.
  1. Oxygenated Blood Flow: a. Pulmonary Veins: Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the heart via the pulmonary veins, emptying into the left atrium. b. Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve): The left atrium contracts, pushing blood through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. c. Left Ventricle: The left ventricle contracts, pumping oxygenated blood through the aortic valve into the aorta. d. Aorta: The aorta carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body, where it delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs. This process constitutes the systemic circulation, where oxygenated blood is distributed throughout the body, and the pulmonary circulation, where deoxygenated blood is sent to the lungs for oxygenation. The continuous cycle of heart contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) ensures the steady flow of blood to meet the body's metabolic demands. Hormones play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, the stable internal environment necessary for the proper functioning of cells and organs in the body. There are two primary mechanisms by which hormones act to maintain homeostasis:
  2. Endocrine Mechanism:
    • Mode of Action: In the endocrine mechanism, hormones are released directly into the bloodstream by specialized endocrine glands. They travel throughout the body, targeting specific cells or tissues that possess receptors for the particular hormone.
    • Speed of Action: The effects of hormones acting through the endocrine mechanism are typically slower and more prolonged compared to the other mechanism.
    • Examples: Hormones such as insulin (from the pancreas), thyroid hormones (from the thyroid gland), and cortisol (from the adrenal glands) act through the endocrine mechanism. These hormones regulate various physiological processes such as metabolism, growth, and stress response.
  3. Paracrine and Autocrine Mechanism:
    • Mode of Action: In the paracrine and autocrine mechanism, hormones act locally on nearby cells (paracrine) or on the same cell that secretes them (autocrine) without entering the bloodstream.
  1. Internal Respiration:
    • Definition: Internal respiration refers to the exchange of gases between the blood in systemic capillaries and the body tissues.
    • Oxygen Exchange: Oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin in the systemic capillaries and diffuses into the interstitial fluid and then into the cells for cellular respiration.
    • Carbon Dioxide Exchange: Carbon dioxide produced by cellular respiration diffuses from the cells into the interstitial fluid, then into the systemic capillaries, where it binds to hemoglobin or is transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma for transport back to the lungs.
  2. Cellular Respiration:
    • Definition: Cellular respiration is the process by which cells use oxygen and glucose to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell, along with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
    • Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate in the cytoplasm, producing a small amount of ATP.
    • Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and undergoes further oxidation to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
    • Electron Transport Chain (ETC): NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the ETC, leading to the production of a large amount of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. These four events of respiration work together to ensure the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere, lungs, blood, and body tissues, providing cells with the oxygen needed for cellular metabolism and removing carbon dioxide waste. Certainly! Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. There are six main processes involved in digestion:
  3. Ingestion:
    • Definition: Ingestion is the process of taking food into the mouth.
    • Function: It initiates the digestive process by allowing food to enter the digestive tract where it can be processed.
  4. Mechanical Digestion:
    • Definition: Mechanical digestion involves the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
  • Processes: This includes chewing in the mouth (mastication), mixing and churning of food in the stomach by smooth muscle contractions, and segmentation in the small intestine, which involves mixing food with digestive juices.
  • Function: Mechanical digestion increases the surface area of food particles, facilitating chemical digestion.
  1. Chemical Digestion:
  • Definition: Chemical digestion involves the breakdown of large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules by enzymes.
  • Processes: Enzymes secreted by various digestive organs, such as the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine, catalyze the hydrolysis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into monosaccharides, amino acids, and fatty acids, respectively.
  • Function: Chemical digestion breaks down food molecules into forms that can be absorbed by the body.
  1. Secretion:
  • Definition: Secretion involves the release of digestive juices and enzymes from specialized cells and glands.
  • Processes: Salivary glands secrete saliva containing salivary amylase to begin the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth. Gastric glands in the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen to aid in the digestion of proteins. The pancreas secretes pancreatic enzymes (e.g., amylase, lipase, proteases) and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to emulsify fats.
  • Function: These digestive juices contain enzymes and other substances necessary for the chemical digestion and emulsification of food.
  1. Absorption:
  • Definition: Absorption is the process by which digested nutrients are taken up from the digestive tract into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
  • Processes: Absorption primarily occurs in the small intestine, where nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed through the intestinal lining and transported to cells throughout the body.
  • Function: Absorbed nutrients provide the body with energy and raw materials for growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues.
  1. Excretion:
  • Definition: Excretion is the elimination of undigested and unabsorbed food residues, along with metabolic waste products.
  • Processes: Undigested food residues, water, electrolytes, and some metabolic waste products are eliminated from the body as feces through the rectum and anus.
  • Function: Excretion removes waste materials from the digestive tract, helping to maintain the body's internal environment.
  • The final step in urine formation is the excretion of the concentrated urine from the kidneys to the bladder through the ureters.
  • From the bladder, urine is expelled from the body through the urethra during urination (micturition).
  • Urine contains water, urea, creatinine, uric acid, electrolytes, and other waste products that were not reabsorbed or were actively secreted during the process of urine formation. Overall, urine formation is a complex physiological process that plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's internal environment by regulating fluid volume and composition, eliminating waste products, and helping to maintain homeostasis. During ejaculation, sperm cells are expelled from the male reproductive system and travel through the male and female reproductive tracts to reach and fertilize the egg in the female reproductive system. Here's a detailed discussion of the pathway of sperm cells during ejaculation and how they fertilize the egg:
  1. Ejaculation:
  • Ejaculation is the process by which semen, a fluid containing sperm cells and seminal fluid, is forcefully expelled from the male reproductive system.
  • It begins with the contraction of muscles in the walls of the vas deferens (sperm ducts), seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, which propel semen into the urethra.
  • The rhythmic contractions of these muscles result in the expulsion of semen through the urethra and out of the penis.
  1. Pathway of Sperm Cells:
  • Sperm cells are produced in the testes through the process of spermatogenesis and stored in the epididymis.
  • During ejaculation, sperm cells are released from the epididymis into the vas deferens (sperm ducts), where they mix with seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands to form semen.
  • Semen passes through the ejaculatory ducts and into the urethra, where it is expelled from the body through the penis during ejaculation.
  1. Travel through the Female Reproductive Tract:
  • Once ejaculated, sperm cells must travel through the female reproductive tract to reach the egg for fertilization.
  • The journey begins with sperm entering the vagina during sexual intercourse.
  • From the vagina, sperm cells swim through the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) and into the uterus.
  • Sperm then navigate through the uterine cavity and enter the fallopian tubes (oviducts or uterine tubes), where fertilization occurs.
  1. Fertilization:
  • Fertilization typically occurs in the ampulla, the widest part of the fallopian tube, where the egg (oocyte) is usually located after ovulation.
  • When a sperm cell encounters an egg, it must penetrate the egg's outer layers (zona pellucida and corona radiata) to fertilize it.
  • Once a sperm successfully penetrates the egg, the membranes of the sperm and egg fuse, and their genetic material (chromosomes) combine to form a zygote, the first cell of a new organism.
  • The zygote undergoes rapid cell division (cleavage) as it travels down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, eventually implanting into the uterine lining and developing into an embryo. In summary, during ejaculation, sperm cells are expelled from the male reproductive system and travel through the male and female reproductive tracts to reach and fertilize the egg in the fallopian tube. Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell penetrates the egg, leading to the formation of a zygote, which develops into an embryo.