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Higher EducationFaith Guides for

A Guide to Islam

Amjad Hussain and Kate El-Alami

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Faith Guides for Higher Education

A Guide to Islam

Amjad Hussain, Kate El-Alami

Series editor: Gary R. Bunt

Copy editor: Julie Closs

Copyright © the Subject Centre for Philosophical and Religious Studies, 2005

(formerly PRS-LTSN)

Picture permissions:

Page 5: Qur’anic Calligraphy © Aftab Ahmad/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 7: The Hajj, Mecca © S.M. Amin/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 9: A stained-glass window by Simon Tretheway © Lydia Sharman Male/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 11: Illuminated Ottoman Qur’an, 17th century © Dick Doughty/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 12: Kaaba, Mecca © S.M. Amin/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 15: Shah Jehan Mosque, Woking © Tor Eigeland/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Page 16: Regent’s Park Mosque, London © Tor Eigeland/ Saudi Aramco World /PADIA.

Published by the Subject Centre for Philosophical and Religious Studies (formerly PRS-LTSN) Higher Education Academy School of Theology and Religious Studies University of Leeds LS2 9JT

First Published November 2005

Reprinted July 2007

ISBN 0-9544524-5-

All rights reserved. Except for quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, and for use in learning and teaching contexts in UK higher and further education, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the publisher.

While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of this publication and the other titles in the series, neither the publisher, series editor, nor authors are responsible for applications and uses of the information contained within. The Subject Centre takes no responsibility for the content of external websites listed in this guide.

Printed by Alden Group Limited, Oxford, UK

Islam

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P REFACE TO THE FAITH GUIDE SERIES

n the 2001 National Census, over 70% of the UK population identified themselves as belonging to a religious community; and the issue of religion is rarely out of the news, often being discussed in relation to highly-charged controversy and emotion. There is often a lack of understanding as to what a religion is, and what it means to be a member (or not) of a specific faith group. Confusion can result in all walks of life and higher education (HE) is not exempt from this. Indeed, institutions are increasingly, and with varying degrees and different levels of success, seeking to respond to and understand specific faith requirements, as they relate (or not) to particular areas of higher education, in continually changing contexts. This series of Faith Guides from the Higher Education Academy Subject Centre for Philosophical and Religious Studies will not necessarily solve all the controversies or confusion, but may bring some answers to some of these basic questions, through providing individuals, departments, and institutions with resource information on issues relating to teaching people of faith in a higher education environment.

The introduction of the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003 suggested a broader social commitment in the UK to the creation of culturally inclusive places of work. Following their introduction, not only is there an ethical and moral duty to consciously avoid discrimination on the basis of religion and belief, but there is now a statutory duty. Both the Home Office and the Department for International Development have expressed their commitment towards working more closely with faith communities and encouraging interfaith dialogue. All these developments suggest a need for staff in UK higher education institutions to develop the skills and knowledge that reflect this growing concern for cultural and religious literacy in British society. This series offers an accessible route into this area of knowledge. By providing concise guides, all those involved in the higher education academic process have an opportunity to quickly acquire a basic awareness of issues, in a format as free from jargon as possible.

The Subject Centre has brought together a broad range of subject specialists who can draw upon their personal experiences of and interactions with specific faith groups and individuals, acquired through their own academic work, and in some cases utilising personal experiences as members of a particular tradition. The guides detail students’ feelings about modern life on campus; information obtained through the authors’ longstanding teaching experience and, in some cases, informal focus groups set up to garner student opinion.

The rich variety of issues contained in this series of guides acknowledges substantial diversity within and between faith groups, in particular in relation to identity issues and ideas about what it means to be religious. The format for each guide has some stress on a commonality of themes, but has allowed authors the opportunity to explore themes that are individual and specific to a particular world view. Editing this series has

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raised some interesting issues, and it is acknowledged that it is not possible to accommodate perspectives as varied as Buddhism, Islam and New Age in the same format—and that there are disparate (and occasionally conflicting) perspectives within diverse faiths, not all of which can be referred to within a series of concise guides. This series is not intended to be a ‘politically correct’ tool, but seeks instead to support the enrichment of the teaching and learning experience for all those engaged within the higher education sector. It is based on the idea of encouraging awareness and understanding of the cultural and religious dynamics of student experience in higher education, with a view to supporting the development and sharing of good practice.

In tackling these concerns, the guides seek to provide a basic introduction to religious world views, before tackling some general issues associated with students and staff from specific faith backgrounds, and their interactions in the higher education sector. It also provides advice on where to go for further information. The series will thereby save the reader time and effort in locating significant source material and advice on higher education issues associated with faith communities and individuals.

This series will be expanded to accommodate further religious (and other) world views, including some of those related to the religions contained in the initial set of titles, and updates to the present volumes will also be provided in due course—so feedback to the present series would be particularly welcomed. The editor is grateful for the input of all the authors in the evolution of this series, and to members of the Subject Centre and its Advisory Board who provided significant contributions at every stage of the production process.

All web links listed in this guide were correct and verified at the time of publication.

Further information and resources on issues relating to diversity can be found on our website at:

http://prs.heacademy.ac.uk/themes/diversity/index.html.

Gary R. Bunt, Series Editor

enquiries@prs.heacademy.ac.uk

Faith Guides for Higher Education

1. INTRODUCING ISLAM

his section is designed to present a concise overview of Islam. It will summarise and present the history of Islam, its belief structure and ways of worship.

Today, Islam is numerically the second largest religion in the world, claiming, according to a range of estimates, somewhere between 1.2 and 1.5 billion adherents, more than one fifth of the population of the world.

The word Islam means ‘submission’ or ‘surrender’ and a Muslim is ‘one who surrenders’ (to the will of God), not in the sense of defeat or subjugation but in the sense of total devotion of the heart and mind to God and living one’s life accordingly.

To most Muslims, Islam is not simply a religion but ‘a way of life’. Muslims believe that Islam is a system that encompasses all spheres of life, social and personal. Islam provides a social and legal system and governs issues such as family life, law and order, ethics, dress and cleanliness, as well as religious ritual and observance.

It is important to understand, however, that various levels of observance exist amongst Muslims. Some Muslims prefer their religion to be a private matter while others may want it to be the basis of all of their social interaction.

Although Islam in the form in which we recognise it today is a relatively young religion, which originated in Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula through the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)^1 , Muslims believe that Islam is a universal religion. They believe it to have started with the first human and continued through time under various names, the constant element being the message that God is one.

Muslims are of many races and include almost all nationalities. Although there are elements that unite all Muslims, there are important differences between Muslims due to their national and cultural backgrounds. In UK higher education there are significant numbers of overseas Muslim students as well as British Muslims. Many British Muslim students have more in common socially with non-Muslim British students than they have with overseas Muslim students. The phenomenon of a ‘British Islam’ is one which is growing and, while acknowledging its origins, increasingly aspires to be recognised in its own right and not seen as a foreign element in British society.

(^1) See Some Commonly Used Expressions —page 13

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Islam

ISLAM IN H ISTORY AND KEY D IVISIONS

LIFE OF THE P ROPHET

slam arose in the early 7th^ century in the city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula as, in the view of Muslims, the culmination of the great monotheistic tradition of Judaism and Christianity. The received history of the life of the Prophet Muhammad and the early years of Islam is central to the belief of Muslims worldwide, in much the same way as the biblical life of Christ is central to the belief of Christians. Muhammad was born in Mecca in the year 570 CE^2. The city was well known to be a commercial centre and a place for pilgrimage for the pagan Arabs. The majority of the inhabitants of Mecca belonged to the Quraysh tribe, a tribe that was subdivided into numerous autonomous clans. The heart of Mecca was the Kaaba, a cube shaped building that Muslims believe had been established by Abraham and his son, Isma’il, for the worship of the One God. By the time Muhammad was born the Kaaba was filled with idols that the Arabs worshipped. In the year 610, when Muhammed was 40, he began to receive revelations from God through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel). The main message that Muhammad was to convey to his people was that there was only One God and that Muhammad was the last Prophet of God. However, very few of the inhabitants listened to him and slowly the leading elite of Mecca started to persecute anybody who accepted Muhammad’s message. According to Islamic traditional sources Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God over a period of some 23 years. In 622, the small number of Meccan Muslims emigrated to Medina (an oasis city 200 miles from Mecca) many of whose people embraced Islam. Thus, Medina became the first Islamic city state, where Muhammad was both a political and religious leader. During this period the continued revelations dealt with issues concerned with the establishment of an Islamic society. The growth of Islam in Medina and amongst other tribes in Arabia led to military clashes with the Meccans, which continued until Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in the year 630 and the Kaaba was purged of its idols. Muhammad died in the year 632, leaving the whole of the Arabian Peninsula under the control of the Muslims.

(^2) Common Era is used here, being synonymous with the ‘Christian Era’ or

‘AD’.

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Islam

THE BELIEF S TRUCTURE OF ISLAM

he belief system in Islam is commonly explained by referring to the six articles of faith and the five pillars of Islam. The six articles of faith outline what Muslims are required to believe in and the five pillars refer to the actions that Muslims are obliged to perform.

T HE S IX A RTICLES OF FAITH

Allah

Allah is an Arabic word, which means the One God. By definition, every Muslim believes in God who is known to be the Creator and the Sustainer of all things that exist. Islam holds that God transcends the possession of any physical attributes, and is not bound by any of the limitations of human beings or of anything else. He has no parents, no children, no associates and no partners. God is, however, described by His ‘99 names’, such as the Creator, Sustainer, the Merciful, the Light and the Forgiver.

Angels

Muslims believe that Angels are created by God from light. They are not to be confused with the classical western images of angels in human form with wings and halos, nor with ghosts. Angels are an entirely different creation to humans, and unlike humans they have not been given free will. Angels are there to do the bidding of their Lord, for example the Angel of Death, angels who record everything that happens to a person, and angels who delivered revelations to Prophets.

Prophets or Messengers

In Islam, the word Prophet does not indicate a person who prophesies the future. It refers to a human being who is chosen by God to convey His Message and to guide other humans. Muslims believe in all the prophets, or messengers, that God has chosen, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron, David, Solomon, Elijah, Job, Jonah, Zachariah, John the Baptist, Jesus and Muhammad (peace be upon all of God’s prophets). Since Islam is a universal religion throughout the history of humankind, Muslims believe that God continuously revealed Divine Guidance to prophets until the last Guidance was given to the Prophet Muhammad.

The Revealed Scriptures

Muslims believe that God revealed four major scriptures to humankind through his Prophets. Thus, Muslims believe that the Torah was given to Moses, the Psalms to David, the Gospel to Jesus and the Qur’an to Muhammad. They believe, however, that the Torah, the Psalms and the Gospel in their original form have been lost as the scriptures were altered and corrupted by human beings. Muslims believe that the Qur’an is now the only Revealed Scripture that has not been changed from its original form.

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Faith Guides for Higher Education

The Hereafter

Muslims believe that this life is very short in comparison with the life hereafter. Muslims are required to have faith in the reality of the hereafter, the Day of Judgement, Resurrection, Paradise and Hell.

Divine Decree

The last article of faith is the belief in God’s decree. Muslims believe that God has power over everything. All that happens is according to His Will, thus nothing is supernatural or random. However, Muslims are not fatalistic—they are given free will and enjoined to strive to do their best in all situations since human beings do not know where their destiny lies. Thus, they must exhaust all possible means and when the inevitable occurs (good or bad) it is to be taken with patience and trusting acceptance of the infinite wisdom of God.

‘Say: He is God, the One, God the Eternal; He does not beget, nor is He begotten; There is none like Him.’ Qur’an, Sura al-Ikhlas (Purity) 112:1-4.

Faith Guides for Higher Education

Siyam

Siyam is an Arabic word for fasting during Ramadan (Sawm Shahr Ramadan—the Ramadan Fast). Muslims fast from dawn until sunset every day during Ramadan, the ninth month in the Islamic calendar. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and each month begins at the sighting of the new moon. While the Gregorian calendar is 365 or 366 days long, the lunar calendar is shorter since it comprises 12 lunar months, amounting to 354 or 355 days. Accordingly, Ramadan falls 11 days earlier in each Gregorian year and so over a period of 33 years Ramadan moves through all the seasons to come back to where it commenced. Fasting entails refraining from any kind of food or drink, smoking and sexual relations between dawn and sunset. Those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey are permitted to break the fast, while women who are menstruating, pregnant or nursing are specifically enjoined not to fast. They should, however, make up an equal number of days later in the year if they are healthy and able. The length of the fasting day depends on the time of year that Ramadan falls and obviously the difference between summer and winter is more pronounced the further north one travels.

Hajj

Hajj is an Arabic word, which translates as pilgrimage. Every Muslim is required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime. A person who is unable to do so due to illness or lack of finances is, however, excused. A person who has debts does not need to make pilgrimage until he or she has settled all debts.

The Hajj, Mecca

Islam

UK C ALENDAR OF ISLAMIC FESTIVALS

here are two major festivals in Islam that all Muslims celebrate, Eid- ul-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr, but there are several others that are celebrated only by certain Muslim groups.

E ID UL -A DHA

Eid-ul-Adha (the Festival of Sacrifice) is celebrated throughout the Muslim world as a commemoration of Prophet Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Ismail to God. Eid-ul-Adha is celebrated on the 10 th^ day of the month of Dhu al Hijja (12th^ month of the Muslim Lunar calendar). It celebrates the ending of the pilgrimage to Mecca, during which each pilgrim sacrifices (or has sacrificed on their behalf) a sheep, goat, cow or camel. Houses are decorated, people go to the Mosque to pray the formal Eid Prayer, they exchange gifts, visit friends and family and come together for a celebration meal in the evening. It is normal for Muslim students to ask for two to three days to celebrate this festival.

E ID UL -F ITR :

Eid ul-Fitr or the feast of the breaking of the fast is celebrated on the first day after the month of Ramadan and continues for three days in a similar manner to Eid al-Adha. It is normal for Muslim students to want to take a few days off before the festival commences to fast the last few days of Ramadan with their families and prepare for Eid.

Note regarding Ramadan

As a matter of simple courtesy non-Muslims may consider refraining from eating, drinking or smoking openly in the presence of Muslims who are fasting during the day in Ramadan. Where Ramadan falls during the winter months and the breaking of the fast is before the end of the working day, it is normal for Muslims who are fasting to wish to be able to break the fast and pray the sunset prayer at the appropriate time, and allowance should be made for this where possible. It is not unusual for Muslims who are fasting to appear tired and lethargic, or to lose concentration as the day progresses, and these tendencies may become more pronounced as the month goes on. This is partly due to the fasting itself during the day and partly to disrupted sleep patterns, as people tend to stay up late at night in social and family gatherings during Ramadan, and wake up early for a pre- dawn meal. Although most Muslim students who fast will attempt to carry on their studies as normal during Ramadan, this should be taken into account in the classroom situation.

LAILATUL - MI ’RAJ

Lailatul-mi’raj celebrates the night of the ascent, when the Prophet ascended to heaven. This festival occurs on the 27th^ day in the month of Rajab, the 7th^ month of the Islamic lunar calendar.

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Islam

ISLAMIC TERMS

FATWA

A Fatwa is a formal legal opinion, in response to a question or query, given by a Mufti or religious scholar qualified to give such an opinion. It may be on any topic. It does not mean ‘death sentence’.

HADITH

Reports on the sayings and the actions of the Prophet and what he witnessed and approved of are called Hadith. Hadith were collected following the death of the Prophet and organised by scholars in a number of collections, the most famous of which are known by the names of the scholars who produced them.

HIJAB

The word Hijab is usually used to refer to the head covering worn by many Muslim women. While the head covering is the most visible element, the wearing of Hijab involves adopting an overall modest form of dress (see Dress Code on page 18).

I MAM

The Imam is the prayer leader. Islam has no priesthood, so the Imam is not ordained to the mosque. Any Muslim may lead the prayer as long as they know how to do it. For practical purposes, however, an Imam may be appointed to a mosque by its governing body to lead the prayer and to offer pastoral care to the community.

J IHAD

Jihad means ‘striving’; this can take the form of any personal effort, spiritual or physical, to do God’s will in the world. It can mean to strive against sin and sinful acts both in one’s own life and in society. Contrary to the impression given in the media in recent times, it does not mean ‘holy war’, although it may include military action in defence of Muslims and Islamic lands.

MOSQUE

The Arabic word for the Mosque is ‘masjid’ which literally means ‘a place for prostration’. Prayer rooms in universities are therefore also usually referred to as mosques by Muslims who congregate there. Besides being a place where Muslims may perform any or all of their five daily prayers and where the Friday congregational prayer and sermon takes place, the mosque is generally the focal point for the Muslim community, where

Faith Guides for Higher Education

educational and social gatherings may take place and festivals are celebrated.

N IQAB

The word Niqab refers to a veil that usually covers the entire face except for the eyes. Some Muslim women chose to wear the niqab with the hijab.

Q UR ’AN

The holy book of Islam is called the Qur’an. Islamic tradition teaches that it was revealed to Muhammad from God through the Angel Gabriel for a period of 23 years. There is only one Qur’an and it is in the Arabic language. The Qur’an is composed of 114 Suras (chapters). It is to be read or recited accurately and according to precise rules of pronunciation and punctuation. The Qur’an is always recited in Arabic, even by non Arabic speakers. Any translation is considered to be merely an explanation of the meaning of the Qur’an.

Due to its sacred nature, there are rules and etiquette with regard to handling, reading or reciting the Qur’an. Muslims always perform wudhu or ritual ablution before touching the Qur’an or reciting it. They show respect to the holy book by not placing it on the floor but always on a stand or table.

Illuminated Ottoman Qur’an, 17 th^ century

Faith Guides for Higher Education

S OME C OMMONLY USED E XPRESSIONS

P EACE B E U PON HIM

The entire phrase or the initial letters are used after all the Prophets’ names. The whole phrase will be used when a Prophet’s name is used in speech, but the initials will be used more commonly in writing or print, especially in religiously-oriented or authored publications aimed at a Muslim readership. The term has been used once in the context of this guide.

I NSHA ’A LLAH

Insha’Allah means ‘if God wills’. It is used by Muslims whenever a statement about the future is made. It averts the assumption that human beings can control what they will do or what will happen in the future without God’s will, for example: ‘I will see you at the lecture tomorrow, insha’Allah.’

A L -HAMDU LI ’LLAH

This means, ‘Thanks/praise be to God’. This is a standard response to anything good or pleasant that occurs, and also to the enquiry, ‘How are you?’

B ISMILLAHI ’L -R AHMAN A L -R AHIM

This means, ‘In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful’. Muslims are encouraged to say this when commencing any action from writing an essay to starting the engine of a car or serving or starting to eat a meal. They may also write it at the top of documents including letters, essays or exam papers.

Islam

ISLAM IN BRITAIN

The opening of the Suez Canal in the late 1860s brought the first significant number of Muslims into Britain from Yemen and other Middle Eastern countries. Many Muslim sailors, who worked mostly in the engine rooms of British merchant navy ships (up to the middle of the 20th century) settled in port towns such as Cardiff and Liverpool, and industrial towns such as Sheffield where they found work in the steel industry. Some of these early settlers eventually brought wives and families to Britain but many married locally. In the 19th century, due to the spread of the British Empire into Muslim countries, there was significant interest in Islam and ‘the Orient’. William H. Quilliam, a lawyer from Liverpool, visited Morocco in 1887 and became a Muslim. He founded the Liverpool mosque, the first in Britain, and the Muslim Institute, and published the weekly Muslim magazine ‘The Crescent’. The second mosque to be built in Britain was the Woking Mission in 1889, which was initially established by Dr Leitner, a Hungarian Orientalist. Khwaja Kamaluddin from India arrived there in 1912 and continued the work on the mosque.

Large scale immigration of Muslims into Britain only started in the late 1950s due to two main factors—the partition of British India and the creation of Pakistan (East and West) and the construction of the Mangla Dam in Pakistan in the early 1960s which submerged some 250 villages in the Mirpur District. In the 1970s large numbers of Indians who had been part of successful settled business communities in Uganda fled the brutal regime of Idi Amin, and following the 1974 partition of Cyprus many Turkish Cypriots came to Britain. During the 1980s and 1990s further groups of Muslims arrived in Britain, mainly as refugees. These included Afghans, Somalis, Kurds, Bosnians and Algerians.

Clearly, then, although they share their faith, Muslims in Britain are not a homogenous group. They differ not only in national and ethnic identity but also in terms of class, education and ideological standpoints. According to the 2001 Census there are between 1.5 and 2.5 million Muslims in Britain today and 80% of these are of Indian sub-continent descent. Approximately 10,000 of Britain’s Muslims are white or African-Caribbean converts (who may prefer to be called reverts, having ‘reverted’ to the true and original faith). The rest of the Muslim population comprises Turks, Arabs, Persians, Africans and many other ethnicities. In the late 1990s 839 mosques and 950 Muslim organisations were fully functioning in Britain. In addition, there are 45 primary and 52 secondary Muslim schools, only 3 of which are state funded.

While most early economic migrants believed that they would eventually return to their homes, today the Muslim community in Britain is relatively settled and integrated with the rest of the British society. The idea of ‘going home one day’ has no meaning for most British Muslims of the second or third generation, who largely consider themselves to be British when it comes to nationality. However, the Muslim youth of Britain cannot be seen as a homogenous group; young people may live according to cultural or religious laws or customs or follow a completely secular approach to their lives. Muslims in the UK continue to face racism, and to be disproportionately affected by poverty and social exclusion, issues which